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rig.i. 




THE WATER METRE, 



ACTUAL MEASUEEMENT SYSTEM 



CHARGING FOR PUBLIC WATER. 



BY 



FRANK G. JOHNSON, M. D., 



BROOKLYN, N. Y, 



ya"^ 



RcGcire what you pay for and pay for vrhat you receive^ per price and 
quantity — so much for so much. ^'T' T'.'^' ' 



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COPYRi: 



NEW YORK: 

WYNKOOP, HALLBNBECK & THOMAS, PRINTERS, 

No. 113 FuiiTOif Street. 

1862. 



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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by 

FKANK G. JOHNSON, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 
Southern District of New York. 



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V 




PREFACE 



Evert possible metliod of adjusting Water Rates 
has been tried, and every system having failed to 
satisfy either the Supplier or the Consumer, or 
both, the only plan which now remains to be 
adopted, that will prove reliable and just, and 
therefore satisfactory to all, is that of Actual 
Measurement. 

As this can be accomplished only by means of 
Water Metres ; and as there are, in consequence of 
the novelty of such metres, many erroneous views 
in regard to their application, we propose, in order 
that the subject may be more correctly appreciated, 
particularly by the consumers of public water, to 
set forth in the following pages the leading ideas 
connected with the Actual Measurement System of 
CJiarging for Pvhlio Water, 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Magnitude of the General Subject 7 

Reasons "why Water Metres should be adopted 8 

Ist. They are in keeping with the principles which govern all buying 

and selling 8 

2d. To prevent the waste of water 9 to 21 

Methods of waste, and illustrations given to show the amount of 
waste: 1st. By the genei^al method of plumbing— 2d. By flow 
of water to prevent its freezing — 3d. Water-closets and urinals 
— ith. Steamboats— 5th. Sprinkling streets and ya^^ds, washing 
xcindows and houses, &c. — (ith. Building — 1th. Stables — Sth, 
Manufactories, breweries, &c. — Wi. Amusement for children — 
lO^A. Motive power 21 to 28 

The probable percentage and increase of waste 28 

Table showing average daily consumption, in ten cities, for each 
inha-bitant, eacTi consumer, and eac/i taker ; and percentage 

of population using water 29, 30 

The present methods of preventing xoaste 31 to 33 

Metres would make every taker a self-interested guardian of 
the Works 33 to 34 

Metres, according to the opinions of Water Boards, the only 
remedy against waste 35 to 33 

3d. To insure justice and satisfaction to all 38 

The methods now in use for fixing rates, and their fallacy 39 to 42 

Evidences from Water Beports to show the injustice of the pres- 
ent systems 42 to 43 

Statistics showing difference in amownfo/ Water consumed, and 
REVENUE received, WITH and without metres 48, 49 

ith. To render water works more efficient 49 

1st. By keeping greater head in the reservoirs 49 

2d. By increasing the force of head in the pipes 49 

3d. By insuring greater head and quantity of water in case of 

fire 49 

ith. By affording water for public fountains, baths, &c 50 

6th. To save main conduit from danger 53 to 56 

6th. To render extensions of water works unnecessary C6to 58 

7th. To enable smaller towns and cities to afford public water 58 to 60 



VI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

8tli. To prevent tlie poisonous corrosion of lead pipes 60 

9tli. To cheapen the price of water for all, especially for manufac- 
turing, &c 61 toG3 

10th. To regulate price of water to meet its cost 63 

11th. To facilitate the changing of rates 63, 64 

12th. To increase the revenue without increasing the rates charged. 64 to 67 

Fancied Objections to the Metre System 68 

1st. Some think water should be free as air to all 68 

2d. Others think they will be charged more with than without me- 
tres — that they cannot afford to pay by the gallon, &c*. 68 to 71 

Actual cost of water compared with price charged 71 

Table, showing number of gallons different sums (from $1 to 

$2i; would buy at cost price, and the present price 72 

The cost of pumping public water 74 

3d. Some say metres would make additional and useless expense. ... 75 

4th. It is said they would be turned to political account 76 

5th. That the Metre Inspectors would collude with consumers, and 

return false reports 76 

6th. Others say metres would be tampered with by consumers 77 

7th. It is said metres will freeze up, &c 77 

8th. Some say metres are needed for factories, hotels, &c., but not 

for private houses 78 to 80 

9th. Others object that revenue cannot be collected in advance 80 

10th. It is said metres for every house would cost a vast sum 81 

Why Water Metres have not been generally adopted 84 

Difficulties in the way of constructing a reliable Water Metre 85 

1st. The sediment and other impurities in the water 85 

2d. The difficulty of rendering metres sufficiently durable 86 

3d. The difficulty of securing sufficient accuracy of measurement 87 

4th. The difficulty of making metres sufficiently simple and compact, 87 
5th. The difficulty of constructing metres so as not to obstruct the 

flow or head of water 87 

6th. The difficulty of rendering metres sufficiently inexpensive for 

general use 88 

Frank G. Johnson's 

TURBINE COMBINATION WATER METRE. 

Patented January 1, 1861. 

Its description, operation, durability, &c 90 to 102 

Relative importance of different merits in water metres 102 

This Metre adapted to other purposes 104 



THE] 



ACTUAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 



CHARGIM FOR PUBLIC WATER. 



MAGWITUI>E OF TME C^EWESAE. SUBJECT. 



There are over a hundred cities in the United States 
and the Canadas alone, supplied with public water works, 
at an aggregate cost of about one hundred millions of dol- 
lars^ supplying one of the most indispensable elements of 
life and happiness to, at least, five millions of people, and 
as many animals — favorably affecting everything con- 
nected with eating, drinl^ing, and cleanliness, as well as 
protecting us from the dangers of stench, disease, and fire, 
and constituting, also, one of the mightiest labor-saving 
institutions of the age. 

Yet the great work of supplying cities and villages with 
public water is only just begun — most of the present 
works having been built within a very few years — while 
not one place in a hundred, which soon will have these 
important improvements in full operation, has yet com- 
menced to agitate the subject. 



The magnitude and importance of such works being so 
great, why not bring to bear, upon the use and distribu- 
tion of the benefits which it is intended they shall afford, 
the ordinary principles of equity and economy, in order 
that, while no person shall be overcharged for what he 
receives, others shall not be allowed to enjoy such com- 
forts at the expense of their neighbors, as well as to cause 
every one to husband the great blessing, and thus cause 
this enormous outlay to go as far as possible in accomplish- 
ing the end for which it is expended. 



REASONS WHY WATER METRES SHOULD BE 
ADOPTED. 



1st. Tliey are in keeping with the principles \«rliich 
govern all buying and selling. 

Buying and selling are regulated hy Jcind, quality, quantitxj, 
and jprice. As water, the article in question, is always the 
same, in kind and quality, only yrice and quantity are to 
be considered. Every commodity is bought and sold on 
the plan of fixed quantities and prices, from a row of pins 
to a drove of cattle — so much for so much — it being ex- 
pected by every one that he may and shall receive what 
and all he pays for ; and it is demanded, also, by all, that 
every one shall pay for what and all he receives 

This is the only equitable and satisfactory method by 
which bu3^ers and sellers can conduct their exchanges. 
Money itself, for this purpose, is divided into fixed quan- 



titles — cents, dimes, dollars, shillings, pence, &c., and we 
have also a unit of measurement for everything bought and 
sold — acres, yards, feet, pounds, ounces, bales, dozens, 
hundreds, hogsheads, barrels, gallons, bushels, &c. All 
labor is hired upon this principle; "A fair day's vrages 
for a fair day's work." Transportation and traveling is 
so much per mile. Even our clergymen, legislators, and 
school-teachers are employed at so much a year, so much 
a day, so much a quarter. Illuminating gas, for instance, 
going, in every respect, side by side with public water, is 
bought, sold, and paid for on this principle. The universal- 
ity of this method — so much for so much — is almost with- 
out an exception, save in the distribution of public water. 
But, water, when it is brought to the consumer through 
artificial and expensive channels, has a commercial value, 
equal to its cost, and, therefore, the method of buying 
and selling it should not be made an exception to the 
general rule. 

2d. ]Rca§oii wliy Water ]M[etre§ should be u§ed i§, to 
prevent waste. 

Though public water works, in this country, are yet in 
their infancy, still the various Boards of Commissioners of 
these works have come to see the imminent necessity of 
preventing the enormous and profligate waste of water: 
for the reason that the maximum supply, in some cases, 
is all consumed^ while in other cases it has already become 
necessary to extend the works ^ at an immense expense. 
The wasting of public water must be checked, for the reason, 
also, that it is found to be greatly on the increase ; the 
proportion now wasted having reached undoubtedly to 
fiftij or sixtij per cent, of the whole amount. This is just 
what might have been anticipated, when we consider 



10 



human nature, and the various present methods of charg- 
ing for water ; for, it is the tendency of mankind to save 
or themselves and waste for others. Every restraint being 
removed and no inducements held out to practice the 
least economy, unbounded wastefulness is the inevitable 
result, which, if not checked, must eventually exhaust the 
most abundant supply. 

It is the height of absurdity to suppose for a moment 
that full one-half, or more, of the public water would not 
be wasted ; when it is considered that, being pent up 
against the almost irresistible force of its *' head," it is 
next to impossible to confine and hold it back ; and espe- 
cially when we consider, too, that (so to speak) this one 
hundred millions of dollars' worth of sparkling and lively 
element has, at least, ybz^?* or Jive millions of escapes or fau- 
cets, great and small, in public and secret places, almost 
continually pouring forth their great and little floods at 
the option oi Jive millions of people, without a solitary 
self-interested guardian to watch and timely close one of 
these ever-opening doors of escape. 

In corroboration of these general statements about the 
waste of water, here are some of the evidences, taken 
from a few of the annual reports of different Water Boards. 

John H. Rhodes, Purveyor Nassau Water Works, Brook- 
lyn, N. Y. — than whom few men have presented more just 
and sensible considerations on the subject of water rates — 
in presenting his views at length, under the direction of 
the Board of Water Commissioners of the Nassau Water 
Department, says : 

" I will endeavor to show from statistics that no system can 
be considered permanent and reliable that is not based upon 
the plan of measuring the water to each consumer. Facts 
teach plainly that the disposition to waste water will certainly 



11 

increase faster than means can be provided for increased sup. 
ply, and that, consequently, every city must ultimately reach 
a point of inefficiency, unless such a system of measurement 
is adopted. 

* To illustrate this tendency, the experience of other cities, 
taken from the annual reports of their Water Boards, may be 
cited. 

" In London, where the water has been distributed by meas- 
urement to each house, the report of the general Board of 
Health, 1849, states the average supply to each person as less 
than 30 gallons per day. Formerly, this quantity was consid- 
ered a proper basis for a calculation of supply, as being the 
maximum required. 

"The report of the Jersey City Water Works, July lst> 
1858, states that the average for the whole year amounts to 
nearly 60 gallons for each individual. This is a quantity 
entirely beyond the wants of such a population, and indicates 
an enormous waste, which can only be checked by a strict 
watchfulness, and the enforcement of the most stringent rules. 

" The complete perversion . of reasonable anticipation is 
fully shown in the case of the city of Boston. Their works 
are very recent, having been finished in 1848, and considered 
as embodying the best teachings of experience and science. 
In the plan of the works, 30 gallons per day for each individ- 
ual was considered a liberal supply. At the end of ten years, 
allowing for an increased population of 175,000, 5,250,000 
gallons would be required daily, and, at the end of twenty 
years, 1,500,000 gallons. Now contrast the practical results. 
The anticipated demand at the end of ten years was exceeded 
at the end of two, and the actual quantity used, at the end of 
ten years, was 5,000,000 gallons per day more than was sup- 
posed would be required at the end of twenty years. The 
estimate of the increase of population has proved to be 
accurate. 

" In reference to the use of water in the city of Brooklyn 
during the six months ending July 1st, 1860, I find that there 



12 



had been inserted 9,640 taps for domestic purposes. Allowing 
the very lowest estimate of eight occupants per house, we 
have t5,680 persons ; allowing them the minimum quantity 
per day of twenty gallons each, we have a consumption of 
2,2*10,400 gallons per day. 

" By a careful estimate of the quantity of water drawn 
from the reservoir, I found the consumption for domestic pur- 
poses to have been at the rate of 2,299,726 gallons per day ; 
exceeding the estimate of 30 gallons per day, as above, only 
by 29,326 gallons. It must be borne in mind, however, that 
this is an estimate for six months' consumption, and that, pre- 
vious to the first of March, but about 6,000 taps had been 
inserted, as against the whole number, 9,460, on the 1st of 
July, upon which latter number the average consumption is 
based. I make this statement in order to show the large 
amount of water consumed at a time when there was no con- 
venient means of disposing of the waste water by means of 
sewers. When, however, the city shall have completed the 
sewer works, and the means at hand to run off the waste water 
are fully commensurate to the ability of the water works to 
supply, the inevitable result will follow, viz. : an enlargement 
of the works, in the vain hope of keeping up with the demand. 

"By permitting the unrestrained use of the water, it cannot 
reasonably be expected that a less quantity than- 75 gallons 
per day will be consumed by each person as a basis of average, 
even when the interests of the city are guarded by a vigorous 
watchfulness and rigid enforcement of the rules and regula- 
tions of the Water Department. But the real wants of the 
citizens do not require such an expenditure, either as a neces- 
sity or luxury. A wanton or careless waste of water by one 
of our citizens must, by the present mode of taxation, fall 
upon his more careful neighbor." 

Mr. Khodes, after making numerous quotations from 
other Water Boards, says : 

" It is needless to multiply quotations to prove the palpable 
fact of excessive and constantly increasing waste. The losses 



13 



resulting from this waste, are, some of them, common to all 
systems of supply, and some peculiar, as involving the direct 
expense of pumping the water. The most obvious of these 
are the great cost of the large mains required for distribution, 
and the inefficiency of the service in regard to the height of 
flow, force and quantity. It is not too much to state that the 
size and cost of pipes for city water works, as well as of the 
reservoirs, could he reduced one-third, if the quantity to be fur- 
nished could be calculated without reference to the unknown 
quantity of waste. 

" I have thus endeavored to place before you a part of the 
great mass of testimony which goes, in my opinion, to prove 
the proposition that warste will increase faster than water can 
be provided, and that every city water works, not based upon 
the metre system, must sooner or later reach a point of ineffi- 
ciency or failure. I have endeavored to controvert the dan- 
gerous and common error, that, so long as more water is at 
hand than is really needed, it may as well be wasted. I have 
quoted the concordant testimony of all the best authorities, 
that a cheap and reliable metre has been the great desidera- 
tum, and have expressed my conviction that great advance 
has been made by inventors towards it. Whether to such an 
extent as to warrant the belief that any radical change in the 
system of serving water will result, it is not for me to decide." 

The Report of the Nassau Water Department, for 1860, 
says : 

" In our last report to your honorable body, we showed that 
the daily average consumption of water per family, for the six 
months immediately preceding, was 243^'^ gallons, which, at 
the time, was considered very extravagant, involving, as was 
supposed, a reckless disregard of economy in the use of water 
for domestic purposes ; yet, when we come to compute the 
daily average use of water for the succeeding six months end- 
ing December 31, 1860, for the same purpose, we find that the 
sum has reached 316^%- gallons per family, and that, too, with- 



14 



out any apparent necessity for such increase. Feeling this to 
be true, we are forced to the reluctant, if not alarming, conclusion^ 
that an end to the profligate and wanton waste of water is not yet, 
and that, unless some means are adopted to restrain consumers in 
such recklessness, the daily consumption of water will continue to 
increase in proportion to the facilities afforded them for carrying 
the same from their premises. 

' The fact is thus made apparent, that, like all other Water 
Works, we are suffering from the constantly increasing waste 
of this valuable necessary of life. We find, after using the 
greatest possible diligence in endeavoring to protect the works 
from waste by passing stringent rules and regulations for the 
government of the water consumers, and appointing Inspectors 
whose duty it is to constantly guard the distribution of water 
and enforce the rules and regulations, that, notwithstanding all 
our efforts, we are constrained to admit that there is a large 
amount of water running to waste daily by carelessness or 
otherwise. This Board therefore have come to the conclusion 
that there is no way to overcome this difficulty and to effectu- 
ally check the unnecessary waste, except it be by a general 
use of the Water Metre, which will at once render the distribution 
of water just and equitable. Hoping to meet the hearty 
co-operation of your honorable body, we shall, at an early 
day, make a special communication to you, giving the rea- 
sons and facts which have led this Board to come to this 
conclusion, together with such recommendations in reference 
to water rates as the circumstances would seem to require." 

The Report of the Chicago Board of Water Commission- 
ers, for 1861, says: 

" If the consumption of water continues to increase in the 
same ratio for the year to come, it will be as much as we can 
do, at all times, to give a good and generous supply. This 
being the condition of things, it becomes necessary that we 
adopt measures to prevent the great waste of water, by the 
use of metres and other restrictions. 



15 

"The large amount of water used for sprinkling- the streets, 
for cleaning the sewers, for fountains, and other purposes of 
luxury, all of which are increasing in a four-fold ratio, 
together with the immense increase in the amount which will 
be required for machinery and other mechanical purposes, 
demonstrate the necessity of preparing our minds, and the 
minds of our citizens generally, for the adoption of some im- 
portant and permanent improvement in that direction." 

The Report of the Trustees of the City Water Works of 
Cincinnati, O., for 1861, says: 

" By reference to the Report of the Engineer, it will be seen 
that, during the past year, we have been compelled to furnish 
16,964,624 gallons more water than the average of the two 
preceding years ; and although the aggregate amount for the 
year has been less than the total for 1860, the first six months^ 
consumption for 1861 largely exceeded the demand for the 
corresponding months of the preceding year. 

" This condition of affairs, occurring during a season wnen 
the establishments of many of our largest manufacturing con- 
sumers have been either partially or wholly closed, is clearly 
attributable to leakage and waste, and demands your serious 
consideration." 

The Annual Reports of the Croton Aqueduct Depart- 
ment, from time to time, contain the following : 

Report of 1859 : " The unnecessary and ever wonted waste 
of water during the whole year cannot have escaped observa- 
tion. The necessity for a more rigid police and more stringent 
rules for regulating the use of water will be apparent, when it 
is stated that very nearly the whole volume of the Croton 
river has been delivered in the city during many weeks the 
past summer, a supply three times greater than any legiti- 
mate use of it would demand." 

Report of 1850 : " The most unremitting and zealous exer- 
tions of the department to abate the intolerable waste of water 



16 



have produced an effect scarcely perceptible to the pnblic eye, 
and it frequently happens that the reservoir is drawn down 
to half its capacity, making an aggregate of 40,000,000 gal- 
lons for a single day's consumption, or ninety gallons to each 
individual. This Board now warns the Common Council, and 
through it every citizen, that the last drop of water, which 
the works in the present state can supply, is daily delivered 
in the city — a supply more than equal to the legitimate wants 
of a population of a million and a half. With some little 
regard to reasonable economy, the daily quantity is amply 
sufficient for all domestic and manufacturing purposes for a 
quarter of a century to come." 

Report of 1851 : " Millions of gallons are worse than wasted 
in flooding instead of sprinkling streets ; to these add the 
hundreds of streams kept running in stores and warehouses 
throughout the year, and the catalogue would begin to show 
its enormity. To stay these accumulated abuses, the depart- 
ment is at all times exerting the influence it possesses, but 
without the aid and support of consumers themselves, its pro- 
gress in so herculean a work must necessarily be slow and 
unsatisfactory. 

" Whether such aid will ever be extended to it by an eco- 
nomical use of water, short of the suffering produced by a defi- 
cient supply, is not to be expected ; bad habits are already too 
thoroughly rooted, and privileges, for which a daily thanks- 
giving should be offered, are so commonly and so constantly 
abused as scarcely to find a rebuke in the best regulated fam- 
ilies. Would these families tolerate a like waste in other and 
less necessary supplies ? If it were possible to circumscribe 
the use of water to indispensable purposes, only furnishing 
for these the most liberal supply, no addition would be required 
for the next twenty years, except to guard against accident to 
the aqueduct itself." 

Report of 1853 : "So certain are the elements of calcula- 
tion, that, if no systematic effort be made to circumscribe the 
use of water, eight years will bring us to the daily consumption 



17 



of all the capacity the aqueduct can bring, and more than twice 
as much as the minimum flow of the river can furnish. How 
different is this aspect of the subject from those pre- 
sented in the early reports of the Water Commissioners, 
which, unfortunately, taught our citizens to believe that the 
supply would be equal to any possible demand for a period 
reaching far into the future, and thus unintentionally encour- 
aging' the lavish use, as well as unpardonable abuse, of the 
great privileges conferred by the work." 

Report of 1854 : " The Board regret that they are com- 
pelled every year to allude to the unwarrantable waste of an 
element so valuable and indispensable to the health and com- 
fort of their fellow-citizens. Notwithstanding every effort has 
been made to check the waste of water, they have every rea- 
son to believe that the very great proportion of the water placed 
at the disposal of the comsumer is used for no valuable or practical 
pur pose. ^^ 

Report of 1855 : " The waste of the water, in streets and 
buildings open to observation, has been repressed and greatly 
diminished for the present, but the improvement can be main- 
tained only by an unflinching collection of the penalties from 
all delinquents. The probably much greater waste which re- 
sults from the careless, profuse, and excessive use of the 
water in families, amounting to an enormous quantity actually 
wasted, cannot be reached, without invading a privacy which 
it is too delicate an exercise of the authority confided to the 
Board to attempt. The careful use and reasonable consump- 
tion of the water in families must, therefore, be left to the 
moral sense of those who govern domestic establishments, 
and in mercantile houses and business offices, to that class of 
men who are known to be influenced in their particular occu- 
pations by the dictates of right reason and equal justice. 
But, nevertheless, the Board feel that they are not absolved 
from the duty of exacting the penalties for waste whenever a 
a case of delinquency is discovered. 
2 



18 

"Being" of opinion that the application of metres to all build- 
ings would repress the waste and increase the income of the 
water, the Board will be disposed gradually to introduce the 
system, under a suitable law, by way of experiment, so 
soon as a metre shall be produced which will be sufficient, and 
come at a price low enough to justify the payment for their 
cost." 

Report of 1856 : " We have not the water to spare. For 
the last twelve days there has not been a drop of water passed 
over the Croton dam. In nine days the water in Croton lake 
has fallen eleven inches. From this it is demonstrated that 
we are now bringing to the city daily upwards of 9,000,000 
gallons more than the Croton river supplies I Already we 
have complaints from every part of the city that the water / 
does not rise in different localities sufficiently high to supply 
consumers, and already the energies of this department are 
taxed to the utmost to keep up a sufficient head in the reser- 
voir to preserve the city from fire, and to answer the legitimate 
demand of the inhabitants. It is indisputable that we have 
not a gallon of water for any other than its present use." 

Report of 1858 : " But very little can be added to the reports 
of former years on the subject of waste. No restraint in this 
regard seems to be exercised by householders, and no efforts 
on the part of the Board seem to be of any avail in checking 
a degree of waste within the doors of private houses and 
stores, which is as unwarrantable and dishonest in itself as it is 
unjust to the officers whose duties and cares it renders doubly 
harassing. The waste outside of buildings has been, in some 
degree, diminished by prompt enforcement of penalties, but 
vithin the houses the inhabitants must be almost wholly left 
to their own sense of right, and the Board have found that but 
little can be hoped for from the existence of such a principle." 

The report of the " Cochituate " "Water Board, Boston, 
Mass., for the year 1857, says : 

"The unnecessary waste of water is an annual topic of 



19 



remark. The daily consumption last year was 12,'726,000 
gallons against 12,048,600 in 1856 ; an increase of about two- 
thirds of a million gallons daily. The increase of water takers 
was but 196 upon the gross number of 20,806. The daily 
consumption for each individual being 13 gallons ; it seems, 
therefore, that the last year strengthens and confirms the 
uniform rule that the waste of water is, and has ever been, on 
the increase. Now, what shall be done ? This Board is far 
from wishing to sound any false alarm, but it requires no gift 
of foresight to make it certain that the present supply will be 
exhausted soon, at the present rate. Were the same causes 
in operation now that were one year ago, it is believed that 
the city would have a short supply on the high service, and 
that it would be impossible to keep the water in the reservoirs 
at a suitable height for safety in case of fire, and, in the nature 
of things, it seems impossible that suffering and danger will 
soon be upon us if some additional remedy be not found and 
applied. The constant daily draft made upon the supply 
has been too exhausting to allow of the playing of the public 
fountains, except on a few public days. The alternative is 
imposed of giving up these enjoyments or imposing a scarcity 
upon some parts of the city." 

Other reports of this Board show that the average daily 
consumption has uniformly increased from forty-one to 
eighty gallons per day for each individual 

Their Report for 1858 says : 

"The original design was, to keep the water running in the 
brick conduit, at a depth not exceeding four feet four inches 
(or about two-thirds full). Whereas, it has been running with 
a head varying from four inches to two feet eight inches." 

The Eeport for 1861, alluding to a certain connection 
that would cost $14,000, says: 

''With this addition to the source of supply, there ought to 
be water enough for this city without any additional expense, 



20 



and the Board are conMent there would be, were it not for 
the wasteful use of the water in the city 

"This has been a topic of discussion in the various Water 
Reports for several years. The present Board have adopted 
energetic measures, by the aid of the police, for preventing 
this evil, and these measures have been attended with marked 
success. 

''At the same time, the only efficient remedy must be found 
in the general adoption, throughout the city, of Water Metres, 
and an entire change in the assessment and collection of water 
rates.^^ 

The Water Keport of Cleveland, Ohio, for 1S61, allud- 
ing to Appendix D, says : 

*' This shows that the increase in the consumption of water 
from the water works has been in the following ratio, to wit : 

In 1858 over 185t, llj per cent 
In 1859 over 1858, 30 per cent 
In 1860 over 1859, 31 J per cent 
In 1861 over 1860, 23| per cent. 

" The appended table shows also a very large allowance for 
each consumer ; half that quantity would indicate a liberal 
consumption of water. 

*' Undoubtedly there is every year an equal quantity of water 
wasted, as is used for all needfid purposes. This waste arises 
partly from leakage under ground by worn-out hydrants, 
which cannot very easily be detached in our sandy soil, and 
partly from hydrants wantonly left open and the water per- 
mitted to run. 

" The employes of the works are particularly charged to be 
watchful about such waste, but having only two men who 
have other duties to perform besides, they cannot detect all 
the violations of the rules and regulations for the protection 
of the works. It is earnestly recommended to all water 
takers to use freely all the water they require, but to allow 
no waste, as every gallon of water is elevated to the reservoir 



21 



at the expense of the works, and the water needlessly wasted 
is a direct loss to the works and the citizens in general^ 

The fourth Annual Report of the Board of Water Com- 
missioners of Hartford, Ct., says : 

"That the quantity of water consumed- during the year 
(1858) has equaled the large total of 190,403,000 gallons. 
This amount is vastly more than it ought to be, and disclosed 
the fact of an enormous waste of water." 

Thus we might go on indefinitely with such quotations 
from Water Boards of all cities and nations, which conclu- 
sively shows that nothing short of the measurement system 
will prove effective in preventing this enormous waste, 
which has come to be the greatest hindrance and draw- 
back to the successful operation and introduction of pub- 
lic water works. 

^ 

S^oiTLa af. the Leadlira^^ meth.ads. luf uifiLch. luafet^ Is. 

LLLCLstecLy and LLLLstt^cLtLaizs. ^.taen. ta SLkam tke. 

amaLLiit af ivcLste. 

Though public water is freely wasted everywhere, at 
all times, and by everybody, yet there are general causes 
or methods of waste which should receive special atten- 
tion, and which metres would prevent. 

1st. li}] the general method of flumhing. — Pipes for hot and 
cold water, to save a little plumbing expense, are invari- 
ably placed side by side, which makes it necessary, every 
time a cup of cold water is needed, to draw off two or 
three pails full for the sewer. 

2d. By allowing the water to flow, to prevent its freezing in 
the pipes, — This is a general practice, and constitutes an 



22 



enormous waste, as will be seen by the illustrations below ; 
yet this practice is both unjust and unnecessary. After 
the city has spent niillions of dollars to bring a "living 
spring" of water into every house, the recipients of this 
invaluable blessing do not lift a finger to protect it from 
frost, but tax their neighbors and the blessing itself for 
this purpose. Many a house wastes, for this purpose, as 
much water in four nights as is allowed that house, by 
general estimate, for a whole year. This can be stopped 
only by general use of metres. Under this head, the Re- 
port of Hartford, Ct., for 1861, says: 

" The Commissioners desire to call especial attention to cer- 
tain results which the foregoing table discloses. It will be seen 
that the average daily consumption the past year has been 
1,098,850 gallons, and that the minimum daily average was 
882,80Y gallons during the month of April, and the maximum 
was 1,292,056 during the month of February, the difference 
between these two extremes being 409,249 gallons daily, or 
nearly 50 per cent. Now, when it is remembered that this 
greater quantity is used at a season of the 3^ear when no 
water is used for public or private fountains, street or garden 
sprinkling, and a greatly reduced quantity for building pur- 
poses, carriage-washing, and other similar demands, the dis- 
parity becomes still more remarkable, and can only be 
accounted for by assuming a general waste from pipes left 
running, to guard against the effect of frost. In fact, the dif- 
ference between these periods, for all legitimate uses of the 
water, should be strongly the other way. The water dis- 
charged by a common service faucet, left open and running at 
the lower portions of the city, is equal to 10,1T1* gallons 
daily, and a very little arithmetic shows that 100 such faucets 
left constantly open would exhaust the whole amount required 
to supply the city, at the present rate of consumption. 

» By actual measurement. 



23 



The Croton Eeport for 1860, alluding to the order given 
to shut oiFthe water at Croton Dam 4th of December, to 
inspect the Aqueduct, says : 

"At the time the order was given, the water in the Receiv- 
ing Reservoir was already twenty inches below the top water- 
line, and in the Distributing Reservoir it was proportionably 
lower than the usual height at that point. From close observ- 
ation and experiments made during the fortnight previous to 
the 4th December, it became evident that the usual (though 
dishonest) habit of letting water run waste in dwelling-houses 
iand stores, to prevent its freezing, had already been commenced 
for the winter, and that it was impossible, with such a drain 
through the outlet pipes, to fill the Receiving Reservoir to the 
height deemed necessary before the examination could be 
entered upon with safety. During this time the thermometer 
was not down to freezing point, and even the usual inadequate 
excuse for this criminal waste was wanting. It was very 
evident that, should the weather become suddenly colder 
during the time set for the repairs, the waste from this cause 
would be increased, and equally evident, from past experience, 
that should this waste be added to the usual consumption, 
during the time the gates were closed, the city would be 
without water before the examination and repairs could be 
finished. Ji^ * * * ^^ i}^q latest possible hour for a deci- 
sion, it became evident that it was impossible to increase the 
store in the Reservoir." 

How great, then, must be the waste from this cause. If 
metres were in use, householders would find a more eco- 
nomical way of keeping frost out of their cellars. 

3d. Another leading source of waste is, Water-closets and 
Urinals. — Though it is intended that water shall be aiford- 
ed at such cheap rates that places like these may not 
lack an abundance for all cleanly and wholesome purposes, 
yet it is absurd to suppose there can be allowed a 



24 



small river to flow constantly through them, or that, for 
practical purposes, such a flow is at all needed. It is not 
an uncommon occurrence for a single family to waste 
water enough in this way to supply a whole neighborhood 
for this and all other purposes. 

" At a private house in Jersey City, where a metre was 
applied, it was found that 9,000 gallons were discharged 
during the first 24 hours. On inspection, this was accounted 
for by ascertaining that the water was allowed to flow through 
the water-closet constantly. The yearly allowance for which. 
such a house is taxed is only 25,000 gallons. Hence, it is 
demonstrated that this house was consuming its year's allow- 
ance in every sixty-seven hours — less than three days — and during 
the year 3,285,000 gallons— something less than two days^ supply 
for the whole city, the daily average consumption of the whole 
city being 2,000,000 gallons. 

" This shows that 222 such closets would consume the entire 
city's supply of 2,000,000 gallons. Here is one water-closet 
recklessly wasting as much water as is allowed or allotted to 
one hundred and thirty-one families — all for the sum of seven 
dollars and fifty cents per annum, 

"If this waste was paid for at the rates charged ($t.50 per 
25,000 gallons), it would amount to $1,082.50 per year. (This 
case was related to the writer by the President of the Board.") 

The Boston Eeport, for 1861, says : 

"The Board are satisfied that some methods of using the 
water, heretofore allowed, are highly objectionable, and should 
be changed at once. One of these is the use of hopper water- 
closets. In order to test this manner of using the water, a 
metre was attached to a pipe that supplied five hopper water- 
closets at the Boston and Maine Eailroad station, and in 
twenty-two days the metre indicated 543,181 gallons as the 
quantity consumed, or 24,690 gallons per day, which, at the 
tarifi" rate of two cents for each one hundred gallons per day 
for three hundred and sixty-five days, would amount to 



25 

$1, 802.3 1. The amount actually charged in the tariff now 
adopted for five hopper closets, in 1861, was $25 ! 

" The Board have not hesitated to adopt a rule that no more 
water shall be supplied to hopper closets made on and after 
January 1, 18G2." 

Yet there are, at this date, 6,373 of these closets, which, 
it appears, are to continue to be supplied. The same re- 
port says : 

" The metre that supplied nine water-closets and six sinks, 
in a factory (Messrs. Grover & Baker) indicated, in thirty-five 
days, 698,565 gallons to have been used, or 19,959 gallons per 
day, which, at the tariff rate of two cents for each one hundred 
gallons for one year, amounts to $l,19t.36. The amount 
actually paid for these closets and sinks, for the year 1861, 
was $80 !" 

If such results as these are brought to light by here and 
there a metre, what must be the aggregate waste in 11,460 
water-closets and 1,383 urinals, which is the number of 
these places in the city of Boston. 

The Detroit Report, for 1861, says . 

" A five-eighths of an inch stream of water was found run 
ning steadily into a water-closet, which was situated in a 
dwelling over a store. On inquiry, the occupant stated that 
it had been running all summer, and that it had been allowed 
to do so by direction of the owner of the premises. A five- 
eighths pipe, under an ordinary head, will discharge about 300 
gallons of water per hour, or t,200 gallons per day, and more 
than 2,000 barrels in three months, for which the party paid 
seventy-Jive cents." 

At the estimate of 25,000 gallons per year, this waste, 
in one closet, would supply o?ie hundred and nineteen 
families for all purposes. 

The same report gives the following : 



26 



" Another instance of this careless indifference and wanton 
waste came to light the past season, accidentally, by the fall- 
ing in of a sewer. "Where a building had been removed, 
about four years ago, the hydrant was taken up without first 
shutting off the water, and a five-eighths of an inch stream of 
water had been running to waste into a sewer, discharging, 
during the time, about 10,000,000 gallons — equal to four days' 
consumption of the entire city." 

Such cases as these, from the Boston, Jersey City, and 
Detroit reports, are not exceptions — there are thousands of 
them in every city. 

It is probable — yes, positively certain — that not one such 
case would occur if the water were received throus^h metres. 

4th. Steamboats are a source of immense waste. — It is a 
practice to cool down boilers by letting out hot water and 
letting in cold at the same time, in order to cool down 
gradually, for the benefit of the boiler. It is doubtful if 
this practice would continue under the influence of metres 
— if it should, the water would be p<7^<^ for, and, too, by 
those who use it. 

5th. Rivers of water are wasted in sprhikling streets and 
yards and washing wi?idoivs and houses. — It is right that water 
should be used for these purposes, but not uselessly wasted. 
If householders had water metres standing in their cellars by 
the side of the gas metres, they would find it for their inter- 
est to turn off the water as soon as the dust is fairly laid, 
as now they do to turn off the gas when they go to bed, or 
at least when the sun rises, 

6th. Builders waste a large amount of water. — If water for 
building purposes should be rated by the gallon, instead of 
by the number of bricks used in building the structure, the 
builder would find it convenient to instruct his employes 



27 



to turn off the water instead of turning it into the sewer 
every time they laid down the hose pipe, to be gone two 
or three hours at other labor. 

7th. All lands of stables are a source of great waste. — The 
force of head of jDublic water renders it exceedingly conve- 
nient and useful in washing carriages (that is> with the hose 
pipe) ; but it having been, in its employment for this pur- 
pose, so abusively and wantonly wasted, there has been 
in many cities a total prohibition put upon this most con- 
venient use of it. 

While proprietors of stables can afford to pay the regular 
rates per gallon for all the water really needed for this pur- 
pose, yet they are deprived of it altogether, as a protection 
against their careless and reckless waste of it, when allowed 
to use it at all in this manner. Metres would render the 
public water available for this purpose, without too greatly 
exhausting the supply. 

8th. Mamifactories, Breweries, Sfc., waste jloods of water. — 
Though many of these establishments pay large sums for 
water, yet this creates no inducement to practice economy 
and prudence in the use of it. The contrary, rather, is 
true. These concerns, having the facilities to do so, waste 
oceans of water. Were they to pay by the gallon, their 
large openings would be guarded with the utmost watch- 
fulness, for as their capacity to waste is immense, so also 
would be their inducement to practice care and frugality. 

9th. Waste for amusement, — There are many cases where 
water is allowed to discharge from hose pipes for hours to- 
gether, to gratify children. This would not be tolerated 
nor allowed any more with water than with gas, provided, 
as it is with gas, a metre in the cellar was effectually ad- 



28 



monishing tliem of the folly, wickedness, injustice, and, 
above all, the personal cost of the practice. 

10th. Public Water, in some instances, is even used for Mo- 
tive Power. — Perhaps the number of these cases does not 
warrant a mention of them ; but they are not alluded to so 
much because of their frequency as to show how grossly 
persons will pervert and abuse the use of pubhc water — 
which many, in fact, most people, feel unrestrained from 
doing, because they know they are not paying on the prin- 
ciple of so much for so much, and because they erroneously 
think they are not — as, in fact, they really are — doing them- 
selves an injury, as one of the common supporters of the 
public works. 



fUfcLste, 

Although, of the whole amount of water brought to the 
city, it is impossible to determine the exact proportion 
wasted, yet, by noting the very great disparity in the num- 
ber of gallons used per individual in different cities, and 
the great increase of quantity per each person from year 
to year in the same cit}^, we are legitimately forced to the 
alarming conclusion, that the consumption of water is doubled 
every few years — notwithstanding full allowance be made 
for manufactories and increase of population. 

Hence, as individuals and families, for all practical pur- 
poses, need no more water this year than they did five or 
ten years ago, this increase of the domestic consumption 
must be entirely attributable to the fact, that the people 



29 



are rapidly increasing the dangerous habit of wantonly 
wasting the water. 

The average individual consumption of gas and food, for 
instance, is no greater now than it was five or ten years 
ago — nor would it be of water, if, like these commodities, 
it were bought and sold per measurement. 

To illustrate still further this enormous increase of ivaste, we 
give the folloioing table, which exhibits the average daily consump- 
tion, in different cities, for each inhabitant, each consumer, and 
each taker : 



• 


TF,AK. 


AVERAGE NUMBER OF 
GALLONS PER DAY. 


Proportion 
of 


CITIES. 


To each 
inhabit- 
ant. 


To each 
individ- 
ual con- 
sumer. 


To each 
taker. 


inhabitants 
using- 
Public 
Water. 


Detroit 


1861 

1861 
1861 
1861 
1861 
1861 
1861 
1861 
1861 
1861 


41 
16 
9 
63 
17 
24 
34 
100 
23 
37 


52 

114 

74 

222 

56 

51 

34 

112 

44 

67 


271 
814 
606 
1775 
448 
405 
277 
714 
353 
533 


78 per ct. 
16^ " 


Cleveland 


Louisville 


12j " 

28 " 


Buffalo 


Brooklyn 


30-J " 


Cincinnati 


48 " 


Hartford 


100 '' 


Boston 


90 " 


Baltimore 


53 " 


New York 


56 " 






Average for the ten cities 




36 


82 


620 


51 per ct . 





In London (Eng.), where the water has been distributed 
by measurement to each house (which is accomplished by 
allowing the water to flow but a given number of minutes 
each day), the report of the Greneral Board of Health, 
1849, states the average supply to each person as less than 
30 gallons per day. Formerly, this quaiitity was consid- 
ered a proper basis for calculation of supply, as being the 
maximum required. 



30 



Yet the average of these ten cities shows that 36 gallons 
per each inhabitant are consumed, while orAjJiftij per cent. 
of the population are consumers ; and 82 gallons per each 
actual consumer — being nearly three times the supposed 
maximum quantity needed. Hence it is safe to conclude 
that three-fifths of the water is wasted. 

Again, to compare cities : Buffalo consumers use five 
times as much water as those of Baltimore ; and Cleveland 
and Boston nearly three times as much. There is no real 
foundation for this great discrepancy. These families do 
not so widely differ in their consumption of any other 
article — why should they in their use of water ? It is to 
be accounted for only by waste. No such inequality would 
exist under the measurement system. 

Allowing 25,000 gallons per year for a dwelling-house 
taker — this being about the basis upon which the rates are 
established — and estimating seven persons to a family, 
each person's daily allowance would be nine gallons. Now, 
by allowing that one-half of this general average of 82 
gallons per consumer (of these ten cities) is used for fires 
and manufacturing, it still leaves 41 gallons per consumer 
for domestic purposes, which is nearer five than four times 
as much as is allowed for such purposes. Hence it is evi- 
dent, again, that at least three-fifths^ or 60 vcr cent, of the 
water, is wasted. 

The Superintendent of the Buffalo Water Works says : 
" I estimate the waste from fifty to seventy five per centP 

The Cleveland Report for 1861 says : 
*' Undoubtedly, there is every year an equal quantity of wa- 
ter iva^sted, as is used for all needful purposes." 

The Croton Board, in Report of 1854, says . 
"Notwithstanding every effort has been made to check the 



31 



waste of water, they have every reason to believe that the 
very great proportion of the water placed at the disposal of the 
consumer is used for no valuable or practical purpose." 

Another evidence that at least 60 per cent, is wasted, is 
in the fact, that the average actual cost of water, in six of 
the principal cities, is only eight mills per one hundred 
gallons, while the average charges, intended only to cover 
costs, are thirty-two mills per one hundred gallons ; being 
nearly/owr times greater than the actual cost. This great 
difference in cost and rates is owing to the fact that the 
greater part of the water is wasted, for which the city 
receives no pay at all. 



^ke JTj'-es.ent jt/Letkad. af. SPMLLentuic^, fW^asfe^ 

The following are some of the stringent rules and regu- 
lations by which it is attempted to prevent waste ; but it is 
apparent that, while they tend to diminish the revenue by 
preventing, in some cases, the useful consumption of 
water, they do but little to accomplish the object in- 
tended : 

"The use of street-wasliers or hand-hose shall be restricted to one hour 
before 8 o'clock in the forenoon for the whole year ; from the first of March 
to the first of September, to one hour before 6 o'clock m the afternoon ; and 
from the first of September to the first of March, to one hour before 4 o'clock 
in the afternoon, and at no subsequent hour of the day or evening, under a 
penalty of Five Dollars for each offense ; and if found out of order, cap ofl, 
or leaking, or if converted into jets, or suffered to run when not used, the 
supply will be cut off without previous notice. 

' ' No hose will be allowed for washing carriages or vehicles of any kind. 

' • No owner or tenant of any premises supplied with water by the Com- 
pany will be allowed to supply water to other persons or families ; if found 
so doing, the supply will be stopped, and the amount of payment forfeited. 

' ' No addition or alteration whatever in or about any conduit, pipe, or 
water-cock, shall be made, or caused to be made, by persons taking the water, 



32 



■without notice thereof being *ireviously given, and permission had in writing 
from the Secretary. 

* ' Every man who has a branch of the Aqueduct, and shall refuse or neglect 
strictly to comply with the rules established by the company, shall be de- 
prived of the use of it ; and the agent of the corporation is hereby required 
to give notice to every individual who takes the water, that the branch of 
any one, who shall waste or give away the water, or allow the drawing place 
to be left so exposed as that his neighbors may come and take it, shall im- 
mediately be cut off ; and that every person, whose drawing place is not in 
his dwelling-house or out-house, shall, within fifteen days, inclose it in a 
box, the door of which shall be locked, s** that no person shall draw water 
but for the use of the families that pay for it. 

"All persons taking the water shall keep their own service- pipes, stop- 
cocks, and other apparatus in good repair at their own expense, and shall pre- 
vent all unnecessary waste of water. 

* ' In case of fraudulent misrepresentation on the part of the applicant for 
the use of water not embraced in the application for the same, or for willful 
or unnecessary waste, the water will be immediately shut off, and payment 
forfeited. 

"No hydrant will be permitted on the sidewalk or in the front area, and 
if standing in a yard or alley attached to any dwelling or other building, 
will not be permitted to be kept running when not in actual use. Taps 
at wash-basins, water-closets, baths, or urinals, must be kept closed in like 
manner. 

* ' When cisterns are so located as to supply separate premises, and may be 
filled from a hydrant, water rent must be paid for all families or other con- 
sumers having access to said cistern. 

' * Cisterns located on premises where there is no hydrant, must not be filled 
from the hydrant in any case. 

' ' Hydrants must not be located so as to be exposed to use by non-paying 
consumers, and all hydrants so situated must be removed to some secure loca- 
tion on notice, or the water turned off. 

"The following abuses are absolutely prohibited, to wit : 1st. Permitting 
or allowing the water to be used for any other purpose than those named in 
the bill. 2d. Sprinkling gardens, streets, or sidewalks, or washing carriages, 
omnibuses, cars, or other vehicles with hose, without a special permit ob- 
tained and paid for at the office ; and in no case will hose be allowed for the 
above uses with out-flows or nozzles, when used for washing carriages and 
other vehicles, greater than one-eighth of an inch, and for any other pur- 
pose greater than one-quarter of an inch diameter of circular opening, or 
their equivalents. 3d. Permitting leaks. 4th. Allowing water to flow un- 
necessarily while washing j)avements and for similar purposes. 

" Kefusal or neglect to conform to the above rules and regulations subjects 



33 



the parties to have the water turned off— to the forfeiture of the water rent 
— the payment of penalties varying from fifty cents to five dollars — and to 
prosecution and fine in the Police Court." 

Suppose a joint stock company to undertake to furnish 
illuminating gas to its consumers for a fixed price per year, 
and depend upon such regulations as these to insure an 
economical use of it. Again : suppose the company should 
occasionally distribute a little moral advice on the subject 
of general wastefulness, to prevent the takers from using 
more gas than they pay for, or more than their share of the 
aggregate quantity paid for by all ; and, to learn if any 
were doing so, and if they were^ to prevent them, suppose 
a special police to be appointed to go about noting the time 
of lighting and turning off gas, and the number of rooms 
in which it is employed for lighting, cooking, heating, &c., 
and the number of burners used ; with a view of telling 
the more extravagant takers that they must be more eco- 
nomical in future. Without metres, and depending upon 
such protections as these, no private gas company could 
survive a year. Yet, as light cannot be hid, except it be 
" put under a bushel," there is less chance of wantonly 
wasting gas than water. 



^ ^.eiiei'aL LL&e af. jl/Leti^es. uiaLLicL inake eiie/^L^ 
^ake.f^ aiz Lnlei^estecL and &eLf-a/T/i.aLfited 
^LLai^dlaii af. tke /lL^af^k& ; lieuiq. tke aizLij, 
met/Tad l/if LiLlzLck. tke. uLCLste can. lie. /Lf^eLLCJzted. 

The present method of fixing water rates are in total 
violation of the principles of economy, and tend to culti- 
vate the habit of general wastefulness. Consumers now 
seem to think the more water they can run through their 
3 



34 



faucets the more nearly they " get their money's worth ; " 
forgetting, because they are not at once reminded of their 
extravagance, and made to pay for it as they go, that ulti- 
mately they must, in common with all,, pay for the whole. 
With metres in their houses they would at once learn that 
water costs something per gallon, and that it is worth some- 
thing per gallon, by being obliged to pay a ^xed price per 
gallon for it. It is next to useless to appoint agents to 
look after the waste of water, or to pass stringent rules 
and regulations on the subject. To successfully prevent 
the waste of water, the same influence must be bro^ught to 
bear which, and only which, prevents wastefulness of all 
other commodities, and that is pecuniary i7ijlttence — self- 
interest. The supply of water is in the hands of the city ; 
but as the consumption of it — use and abuse — is wholly in 
the hands of the takers.) they alone can prevent the waste. 
But to reach the takers their pockets must be touched. 
This can be done only by the use of metres. The Depart- 
ment cannot reach the talcer in any other way, much less 
the children and servants of the taker, but the taker himself 
being reached, he will see that his family and employees 
do not violate the principles of economy at his expense by 
wantonly or carelessly wasting the water — if he does not, 
why, let him yay the bill, and the Department, his neighbors, 
and justice vdll all be satisfied. 

The metre would appoint, without trouble, cost, or at- 
tention of the Department, about sixty thousand interested 
taker-agents in New York alone ; and these would appoint, 
and see that they did their duty, at least six or seven times 
as many more consumer-agents to act under them, every one 
of which would either do something to prevent the waste 
of water, or be compelled to pay accordingly. 



35 

^xt^CLcts. p'-am flU^citei^ SSte/zcu^ts. ±a Aliaui tkat It 
L& tke. a/zuila/L af flU^atei^ J^aaHis., o^en.e^t'-aLLij^y 
tkat j4lett'-e& ai^e. tke aiili^. f-enzedij. ac^cdizst 
uiaate and azj-LLslLce. 

The Boston Report for 1861, speaking of the means of 
preventing waste, says : 

" At the same time, the only efficient remedy must be found 
in the general adoption, throughout the city, of water metres, 
and an entire change in the assessment and collection of 
water rates." 

The New York Report of 1855 says : 

" No satisfactory estimate of the consumption of water at 
some of the manufactories and hotels can be made without 
the intervention of a water metre. 

" Metres have been placed on sixty-eight large buildings, 
and have operated beneficially in determining the quantity of 
water consumed, and the Board propose to extend the system 
in special cases of hotels, factories, &c., as circumstances 
may require." 

The same Report for 1854 says : 

"As stated in the last annual report, water metres have 
increased in favor, and the consumer who could not be con- 
vinced of the quantity of water used in his establishment, has 
now a certain and impartial umpire, and though the result in 
almost every case is against the consumer, yet the decision 
of this small, but very costly, apparatus is generally acquiesced 
in. The only objection to their far more extensive use is the 
expense of the apparatus, and some loss in the head of water 
to those who require its use at high elevations ; and it is to 
be hoped that the ingenuity of some practical inventor may 
yet overcome these difficulties, and render their adoption 
more extensive." 



36 



The same Report of 1858 says; , 

" The waste outside of buildings fias been, in some degree, 
diminished by prompt enforcement of penalties, but within 
the houses the inhabitants must be almost wholly left to their 
own sense of right, and the Board have found that hut little can 
he hoped for from the existence of such a iDrincipleP 

The same Report of 1850 says : 

'' The most unremitting and zealous exertions of the De- 
partment to abate the intolerable waste of water have pro- 
duced an effect scarcely perceptihle to the public eye." 

The Chicago Report for 186 L says : 

" This being the condition of things, it becomes necessary 
that we adopt measures to prevent the great waste hrj the 
use of metres, and other restrictions. 

"It is our own experience, as of Boston, New York, and 
other cities, that metres afford the oxly just means of assess- 
ing parties using- large quantities." 

The Brooklyn Report, says : 

"The sale of water by measurement (metres), then, if feas- 
ible, we say, is the only equitable and just mode of disposing 
of it. 

" This Board, therefore, have come to the conclusion, that 
there is no way to overcome this difficulty, and to effectually 
check the unnecessary waste, except it he by a general use of 
the water metre, ivhich will at once render the distribution of 
water just and equitable." 

The Cincinnati Report for 1861 says : 
" The ONLY true mode of arriving at a correct assessment is 
by an universal application of a reliable metre" 

Mr. Rhodes, Purveyor of Brooklyn Water Works, says : 

" No system can be considered permanent and reliable that 
is not based on the plan of measuring the water to each con- 
sumer." 



37 



Again he says : 

" . . . . Every city water works, not based upon the 
metre system, must, sooner or later, reach a point of inefficiency 
ov failure^ 

The Boston Report for 1861 says . 

" . . . . The most^us^, satisfactory, and equitable method 
of charging" for the water would be by actual measurement, so 
that each citizen may pay for just the quantity he uses." 

" . . . . Where a measurement of water seemed indis- 
pensable, the Board have caused metres to be introduced. '^ 

The Detroit Report for 1861, alluding to the measure- 
ment system, says : 

" Every one would then be charged for what they choose 
to use, or requhed to be delivered, and no more. This can be 
ascertained by requiring all consumers to affix a metre to their 
service-pipes, which would accurately register every gallon of 
water delivered, when payments could be made at a fixed rate 
per gallon." 

The Cleveland Report for 1861 says : 

*' The purchase of a few metres is again solicited, chiefly for 
the purpose of ascertaining the quantity of water consumed in 
large establishments, where the water at present is used most 
lavishly." 

The reason we have said so much about waste is, because 
this INCREASE of waste is the alarming feature of the subject. 
Public water works, and the nature of water itself, afford 
such extraordinary facilities for gratifying this tendency to 
wastefulness, that we may soon look for indications of fail- 
ure to meet the demand, unless a remedy be applied, which 
no man, at all conversant with the subject, doubts can be found in 
a suitable metre. 

The nature of gas, and its uses, are such that, relatively, 



38 

but a small quantity would be used or wasted even if it 
were supplied without metres, and its consumers were to 
Tise it for all heating and cooking purposes ; but water — so 
mobile as it is — drawn by gravity, and irresistibly forced 
along by its head, unceasingly flies with the speed of light- 
ning to its mother, the ocean or river ; while, by steam 
and pump, the elevation of it again to its high leaping- 
place, the reservoir, is quite a different process — heavy, 
slow, and expensive. A child at the faucet can do v\^hat 
requires the power of a mighty engine to counteract. 

3d Ilea§on ^vliy Water Metres sliould be ii§ed is, to 
insure justice and satisfaction to all. 

Of the many evils, which result from the enormous 
waste of water, the most prominent and extensive is that 
of injustice among the consumers. Economy and equity are 
equally outraged. The present methods merely aim at, but 
do not reach, equality. They come no nearer to meting 
out justice, than the police do to preventing the waste. On 
the supposition that all families use about the same amount 
of water, they are charged alike. Yet some families con- 
sume a hundred, and fifty times more than others. Under the 
third source of waste, on page 24, it will be seen that one 
family was consuming — ^in a water-closet — as much water 
as is allowed for a hundred and thirty-one families, at a 
charge of $7.50 per year ; and that another was using as 
much as is allowed for one hundred and nineteen families, at 
a charge of three dollars jper year. Suppose a certain 
number of families should agree to buy and pay for pro- 
visions in common ; and at the day of settlement it was 
found, by the grocer's books, that a Mr. Brown's family 
had actually taken flour, eggs, meat, potatoes, &c., suffi- 
cient to supply one hundred and thirty-one families, and at 



39 

a cost as many times greater than the amount of his share 
of the general payment, and how long would these families 
continue to pay for provisions on this basis ? Yet, in point 
of equity, it is no less absurd to divide and pay the cost of 
water, than it is to divide the ex])ense of food, on such d. false 
basis. Again : suppose a block of ten houses were all sup- 
plied with gas through one metre, and the bill for gas to 
be equally divided between the ten families ; why each of 
the ten neighbors w^ould be walking up and down to see 
how many rooms were lighted, and how long they were 
lighted, &c., for fear that each would consume more than 
his equal share of gas ; hence every taker demands a gas 
metre of his own, being willing to pay for all the gas he con- 
sumes, whether he burns it for lighting, cooking, heating, or 
any other purpose. People are not satisfied to divide any 
expenses in common, where it is possible to adopt the 
plan of each paying for what, and only what, each receives. 
The reason why the consumers submit to this unjust meth- 
od of distributing water is, because the injustice of it is 
not generally appreciated, together with the fact that the 
Water Departments, heretofore, for the want of a suit- 
able metre, have been unable to adopt any better and more 
equitable system. 



^ke jlietkacLs. iiam. La iL&e fat^ fixing tize. Slates, 
af S^llLlLLc /ll/a±ef^. 

These are various, and are made out upon quite different 
theories : 

1st. Upon the basis of the number of persons residing in a house, 
the charges being, so much for each individual up to a given 
number ; and then another rate per head for all over this 
number. 



40 



This method might do, so far as it goes, provided no 
pers.on would use more water than were practically- 
needed. But it does not reach the question of waste, for 
water will flow from a given faucet as freely with only 
three persons in a house as with a hundred. If a family 
consist of twenty-five persons, it does not take the whole 
twenty-five to turn the faucet. A single water closet, as 
will be seen, in a family of only two persons, may consume 
as much water as a hundred large families that make a 
reasonable use of water. 

2d. The basis of the oiumber of rooms in a dwelling, the charges 
being so much per room. 

This method is self-evidently absurd ; for, a dwelling of 
twenty rooms may contain only three persons, while twenty 
persons may live in a house of only three rooms. Hence, 
the management of the faucet has no necessary relation to 
the number of apartments in a dwelling. 

3d. The basis of the number of stories in a house, together with 
its width, depth, &c. 

This system is more absurd than the last — -just as if 
water would not flow through a faucet as rapidly in a 
high narrow house as in a low broad one ; in a small, as in a 
large dwelling. 

4tli. The basis of the valuation of the property, taken accord- 
ing to the city tax list, where water is taken. 

This plan is still more absurd, for it does not even take 
into consideration either the number of persons ox t\m number 
of rooms, and, much less, the habits of the people. Valuation 
of a dwelling depends upon its locality, magnitude, kind 
of material, style of finish, &c., which have not the 
remotest relation to the consumption and waste of water. 



41 

It may be that some, or all, of these methods have been 
adopted in view o^ other consideratioDs than that o^ charging 
for water "per quantity consumed. If not, there is no more 
correctness, equity, and satisfaction in any of these systems 
of regulating water-rates than there would be in adjusting 
them by the color of the carpets and style of furniture in 
a house. It would be no more absurd and ridiculous, 
even, as further on it will more fully appear, to judge of 
the speed of a horse by the length of his tail, or of the 
morals of a man by what he ate for breakfast. 

5th. The basis of the kind of business carried on in the build- 
ing, embracing everything under special rates, from a bath- 
tub to a first-class hotel, from a barber's shop to a navy-yard. 

This plan is correct in theory ; but, in practice, it is im- 
possible to attain to more than loose generalities. It does 
not provide for the habits of the consumers ; and it has to 
do more with the relative than the absolute amount of water 
consumed by the several branches of business. People, 
generally, are so different in their habits of using and 
wasting water, that a special rate is needed for almost 
every family. Even then there is no basis for calculating 
the absolute amount each would consume — metres would 
actually show a special rate for each house. 

In the early introduction of public water, it was believed 
that the supplies would ever continue inexhaustible, and 
no metres were called for ; and, when it became apparent 
that metres were needed, there were none, suitable, to be 
found ; hence, the adoption and continuation of these un- 
scientific, wasteful, and inequitable methods of distribution. 
But recently, it having become imminently necessary to 
economize the use of public water, many of the Water 
Departments have called for metres, and invited the atten- 



42 



tion of inventors to the subject. Some Water Boards have 
even held out inducements, by offering large premiums for 
the production of a suitable metre. 



^uatatLaizs. ft^am Sle/zaf'±& af. fllfcitei^ J^aai^cLs., in. 
canfLf^maflan. af. tke 'uij.LLS.tLce af. the fzt'^Es.eizt 
jnetkada. af dLsfHliLLtLrii^ jlllLLLc uiatei^. 

The Eeport of Salem, Mass., for 1S60, says : 

" The duties of the agent and collector are comparatively 
onerous and perplexing, and can be appreciated only by those 
who are conversant with them. The shifts and turns at de- 
ception in the use of water are manifold, and prove how sadly 
we have departed from the standard of truth, as demonstrated 
by Jennie Deans in the Heart of Mid-Lothian — but 
' ' "When self the wavering balance shakes 
'Tis rarely right adjusted. ' ' 

As *the agent has principally to rely upon the water takers, 
in one case, to render a true and accurate account of the num- 
ber in a family, and in the other the quantity of water used, 
he has all sorts of people and all sorts of consciences to deal 
with, from the strictly honest and reliable, to those who 
appear preposterously to acknowledge no property in water, 
which is a gift in the providence of God, forgetting that the 
providence of God does not lay down pipes or convey water 
through them to their doors, and therefore believe it a venial 
offense to deceive in the use of it. 

The Brooklyn Keports, at different times, contain the 
following : 

" The city, not unlike an individual, has a commodity to 
dispose of, and if we adopt a system which shall approximate 



43 

nearest to the principle of exact weight or measure, then at 
least have we reached the equity of the cases under con- 
sideration, if no more. The equities of this subject involve 
perhaps, a greater diversity of opinion than any other policy 
of city government, and each individual of the community 
would imagine himself aggrieved when called upon to pay, 
under any such scale of rents that may be adopted, which falls 
short of actual measurement. 

" In arranging the rent to be charged upon buildings we 
have suggested 18 diilerent rates, without reg-ard to the width 
of front under 60 feet. We have paid no regard to the value 
of houses of any description, for the reason — that there are 
such a great variety of values as to render such a proposition 
almost impossible ; besides, the value of buildings cannot, under 
any circumstances, be a criterion as to the quantity of water 
consumed within them. 

" So long as parties are allowed the indiscriminate use of 
water, there will always be a corresponding waste. There 
can be no doubt, therefore, but that the true policy would be 
to establish a rate, not upon the size of the building, but upon 
the gallon. Justice and equity would seem to dictate this 
course ; yet, as no city on this continent has adopted such a 
principle, it would be difficult, indeed, to convince the public 
that such a plan would be advisable or ever feasible. We 
would suggest to your honorable body that, should it be 
deemed politic at any future time to change the present estab- 
lished rates, that the subject of furnishing water may be 
taken into consideration." 

" In time for our next semi-annual report, we shall be in 
possession of sufficient data, we believe, to prove conclusively, 
to any unbiased mind, that the principle of rating dwellings, 
factories, and other structures, according to their dimensions 
and uses, is as fallacious as it would be to tax an individual 
to raise money for governmental purposes, according to his 
height in feet and inches, discarding entirely, in the considera- 
tion of the question, the amount of property in the possession 
of the person taxed." 



44 

" The sale of water by measurement, then, if feasible, we 
say, is the only equitable and just mode of disposing of it ; 
and, if adopted by this city, we should be setting a commend- 
able example to all other cities, whether of larger experience 
or not, and one, too, which, while it would not inflict a wrong 
on the greater, would materially lessen the burden now rest- 
ing upon the more moderate consumer. 

'' The necessity of metres, for the protection of the interests 
of the city, is fully apparent. In most instances, where a 
difference of opinion has existed as to the quantity of water 
used by manufactories, the use of a metre has shown in almost 
every instance a consumption of from thirty to fifty per cent, 
more than repres'ented by the consumer. The difference in 
some cases would pay the cost of a metre in three months. 

'' The above results shov/ conclusively that the present 
system of rating dwellings by their dimensions, irrespective of 
the quantity of water consumed, to be extremely fallacious, 
and must result in a large annual deficit." 

The Chicago Report for 1861 says : 

The Board are introducing metres from time to time for the 
determination of the water rates of large consumers. It is 
our own experience, as of Boston, New York, and other cities, 
that metres afford the only just means of assessing parties using 
large quantities. Such parties have heretofore been assessed 
by an estimate of the amount used, and so long as there is no 
inducement for the consumer to limit his use of water to his 
real necessities, it is almost always found that the estimated 
amount is much too small. We have now some twelve metres, 
and have ordered others, with the intention of applying them 
to the large hotels, breweries, and manufacturing establish- 
ments. 

"The rates determined by metres during the year 1861, 
amount to about four thousand dollars.'* 

The Cincinnati Report for 1861 says. 

" I am fully aware of the difficulty any one will experience 



45 



in correctly estimat'ing the amount of water used in the 
almost infinite variety of manufacturing business carried on 
in our city, and I am far from claiming an infallibility for my 
own calculations. The only true mode of arriving at a correct 
assessment, is by an universal application of reliable metres.''^ 

The same Eeport, alluding to waste, says : 

" Any remedy that can be applied to abate the evil will 
redound both to the benefit of the works and the consum- 
ers, who seem to fail to comprehend that, in permitting unne- 
cessary waste, they are robbing themselves, and that all the 
economy they may exercise will result in a proportionate sav- 
ing of the amount they, as consumers, must pay for this indis- 
pensable necessary of life." 

The Hartford Report for 1861 says . 

'' Many consumers manifest a strange indifference to the waste 
of water upon their premises, not apparently realizing that a 
moral wrong committed against the public is as heinous and 
indefensible as when committed against a private citizen ; and 
what is regarded as a serious breach of good faith in the use 
and waste of water, by the commissioners, is too often re- 
garded by the careless consumer, as a matter of too trifling 
importance for a moment's thought or care. Under our pres- 
ent limited means of supply, the commissioners feel impelled 
to appeal to the moral sense of a candid public, for a more 
serious and careful consideration of this subject." 

The New York Report for 1855 says : 

" No satisfactory estimate of the consumption of water at 
some of the manufactories and hotels can be made without the 
intervention of a water metre. The leading principle of the 
whole system, comprehending the price of the water and the 
collection of the rents, it would be difficult for the most ex- 
perienced hands to improve, unless a suitable metre can be fur- 
nished at a suitable priceJ^ 



46 



Mr. Rhodes says : 



"A wanton or careless waste of water by one of our citi- 
zens must, by the present mode of taxation, fall upon his more 
careful neighbor." 

Mr. Rhodes, again, while alluding to the cost of water, 
says : 

" This statement of the cost of water testifies strongly of 
the inability, under the present system, to assess the expense 
equitably. It is no more nor less than a confession that one 
consumer must pay for the waste of two or three others" 

The Boston Report for 1861 says : 

" These results speak for themselves, and show that some 
radical change in this enormous disparity between the amount 
of water used, and paid for, is desirable ; and it is quite cer- 
tain that the most just, satisfactory, and equitable method of 
charging for the water would be by actual measurement, so 
that each citizen may pay for just the quantity he uses. Hence 
many are ready to advocate the immediate introduction of 
water meters over the whole city." 

The Detroit Report for 1861 says : 

" The rates charged are not for the Detroit river water, but 
for conveying it to the premises of consumers, and such serv- 
ice has a fixed, permanent, and unchangeable value, to wit : 
the cost per hundred gallons of delivering the same, and such 
rates are graduated by the Board to meet the requirements of 
the works to pay the annual interest and contingent expenses, 
and are meant to be as nearly according to the quantity con- 
sumed as possible. If the rates could be fixed exactly in pro- 
portion to the quantity of water delivered, no one would ques- 
tion the correctness of the principle any more than they would 
for being charged for conveying a certain number of cords of 
wood from the river to their premises." 



47 

• What is regarded as waste by those in charge of the works 
is regarded by the takers as a necessary use, or the waste at 
least trifling, but water toasted is the same as taking its value in 
money out of the treasury J^ 

" Some water takers manifest a strange indifference to the 
waste of water going on on their premises, and suffer leaks to 
continue indefinitely, if they can procure the requisite supply.' 
Unmindful of the fact that a moral wrong is the same whether 
committed against the public or an individual, they do not 
seem to care at what cost to the public, in excess of the amount 
they pay, the supply is furnished." 

The following results, brought to light by the measure- 
ment system, demonstrate the absence of all uniformity 
and the utter impossibility of correct conclusions without 
the use of metres. 

The Boston Report, January 7, 1858, says: 

"The subject of metres has engrossed a good share of 
attention during the past year. Some samples have been 
presented to the Board, which promised, or the owners 
promised for them, satisfactory results. So important is 
it deemed that a good and reliable metre of moderate cost 
shall be invented and brought into use in cases of large con- 
sumption, that the Board have authorized the purchase of 24 
metres, for the purpose of giving them a fair trial." 

The following is a part of the results of the trial, as shown 
by the report of 1859 •• 

Schedule A. 

Of the 60 metres purchased last year, twenty-three have 
been attached, and are now in operation at the following 
hotels, and show the average daily consumption of water ; 
also the amount of the water rate charged to each, as compared 
with the amount received in 1858 : 



48 



Gallons Water Rato "Water Rato 

per day. 1859, 1858, 

by Metre. by calculat'n. 

Eevere House 17,838 $1,116 85 $571 00 

Parker House 14,557 897 80 240 00 

Fremont House 14,142 846 50 475 00 

American House 12,538 808 47 810 00 

Marlboro Hotel 8 856 635 21 267 00 

United States Hotel 8,854 678 80 672 00 

'Adams House 5,991 485 32 354 90 

Coolidge House 5,681 426 56 281 00 

Totals 84,857 $5,895 22 $3,670 00 

Supposing one metre, of suitable construction, could be 
made to answer for eacb hotel, here is a saving — or an in- 
crease of revenue — in one year of $2,225.22 on eight 
metres ; or $278.15 on one metre. See page 79. 

The Purveyor of the Brooklyn Water Works, Mr. Ehodes, 

says : 

''Our experience with metres has fully proved that the use 
of water varies so much in establishments of the same kind, 
or even in the same establishment on different days, that the 
constant presence of a metre is necessary for the determina- 
tion of the quantity. No classification or average seems to 
reach the case at all. From my official records I extract the 
following variations : 

One consumer varies from 1,197 gallons to 4,251 gallons per day. 

Do. do. 871 do. 14,734 do. do. 

Do. do. 15,438 do. 50,347 do. do. 

Do. do. 10,436 do. 27,902 do. do. 

Do. do. 4,979 do. 25,444 do. do. 

Do. do. 4,987 do. 9,778 do. do. 

Do. do. 1,016 do. 5,602 do. do. 

Do. do. 461 do. 16,997 do. do. 

Do. do. 22,446 do. 36,608 do. do. 

Do. do. 15,165 do. 34,091 do. do. 

" These results were deduced from very careful and repeated 
observation of the metres, and are to me proof of the fallacy 
of any attempt at classification or general average. 



49 

''In a few instances, metres have been set ?it private houses 
as a means of ascertaining' the average quantity of water 
used. The result has shown that the quantity of water used 
by different individuals, varies in a very extraordinary degree, 
ranging from one hundred and thirty gallons to one thousand and 
seventy-Jive per day J' 

4tli lieasostt wliy "Water Melre§ §lioiild toe used i§, to 
render tlie l¥orks more efficienl. 

1st. By keeping a greater head in the Reservoirs. — The 
waste being prevented, the reservoirs would be more con- 
stantly full, without either over-taxing, and thus endan- 
gering, the main conduit, or cutting short the necessary 
supply. The result of keeping the reservoirs fulU instead 
of only half full, would be, in case of the Croton and other 
Works, to afford a supply in the two upper stories of a 
large part of the city, where now it is impossible to draw 
water, for want of sufficient head. 

2d. By increasing the FORCE of head in the PIPES, and thus 
render the head more effective (or, rather, less ineffective), 
which will also aid in raising the water to higher elevations. 
The greater the number of openings, between the head in 
the reservoirs and a given outlet, the less will be the effect- 
ive head at that given outlet ; and vice versa. Hence, that 
the head may be as great as practicable, at any given place 
and time, it is desirable that no faucets, between this ulace 
and the reservoirs, be needlessly open. 

3d. By keeping a greater head and quantity oj water con- 
stantly at hand, in case offre, — One of the greatest objects of 
public water works is, to afford more safety and protection 
against the pow^erful and merciless ravages of fire. Yet it 
is well known that, frequently, in case of fires, the head 
and quantity of water are so much diminished that the 
4 



50 



works, in this respect, are rendered to a large degree 
ineffective. 

4th. By affording an abundant supply of water for public 
fountains, baths, ^c. — Many of the fountains, which have 
been built at great expense, have been entirely stopped and 
allowed to rust and go to decay, as nuisances in public 
places, for want of a supply of water to keep them in opera- 
tion, while the needless waste of water in any half dozen 
water closets would keep a fountain in full play, as an 
ornament to the city, and a gratification to thousands. 

In confirmation of the foregoing reasons why the Works 
would be rendered more effective, by preventing the waste 
of water, we subjoin the following testimony : 

The Croton Keport for 1856 says : 

"Already we have complaints from every part of the city 
that the water does not rise in different localities sufficiently 
high to supply consumers, and already the energies of this 
department are taxed to the utmost to keep up a sufficient head 
in the reservoir to preserve the city from f re, and to answer the 
legitimate demand of the inhabitants. It is indisputable that 
we have not a gallon of water for any other than its present 
use." 

The Report of the " Cochituate " Water Board, for 
1857, says : 

*' Now, what shall be done ? This Board is far from wish- 
ing to sound any false alarm, but it requires no gift of fore- 
sight to make it certain, that the present supply will be 
exhausted soon at the present rate. Were the same causes in 
operation now that were one year ago, it is believed that the 
city would have a short supply on the high service, and that 
it would be impossible to keep the water in the reservoirs at a 
suitable height for safety in case of fire ; and, in the nature of 



51 

things, it seems impossible that suffering and danger ivill soon he 
upon us, if some additional itemed]/ be not found and applied^ 

Mr. Rhodes, Purveyor of the Nassau Works, Brooklyn, 
says : 

" We all know what a loss of head is suffered by the great 
draft made upon the pipes, shown in the feebleness of ordinary 
street hydrants, when any considerable number of them are in 
operation, and thereby giving a short supply for fire purposes, 
as well as in the failure of the water to flow into the upper 
parts of the dwelling houses and manufactories, or to feed 
boilers. 

" Taking the Croton for example : The ample head furnished 
should be sufficient to give an unfailing supply in any part 
of almost any dwelling house in the city, while the fact is 
that it will scarcely reach the second story ; and every hotel 
or other public building is compelled to resort to the use of 
steam, to raise the water to the necessary altitude." 

Detroit Eeport, of 1861, says : 

"Many complaints have been made that the water does not 
reach the elevation, in some sections of the city, it was sup- 
posed it would, when the new reservoir was brought into use, 
which is attributed to a want of sufficient head ; and the pro- 
priety of carrying the embankments higher has been suggested. 
The top water line in the reservoir is sufficiently high to give 
a theoretic head above the surface of the ground as follows, at 
the localities named : 

Corner of Rivard and Jefferson avenue, 

" •' Woodward avenue and Jefferson ave- 
nue, 

" Shelby and Fort streets, 

*' Fort and First streets, 

" Woodward avenue and High street, 

" " and Holden road, - 

At the corner of Rivard street and Jefferson avenue, a good 



EET. 


TENTHS. 


44 


2 


49 


1 


44 


10 


43 


3 


43 


T 


18 


11 



52 



head of water is obtained at an elevation of twenty-three feet 
above the surface of the ground, while it fails at the corner of 
Fort and Shelby streets at sixteen feet. This is to be attrib- 
uted to the fact that the first is near the ascending main, and 
connected directly with ten-inch pipe, and the latter is a mile 
from it, in the central part of the city, mainly supplied from 
pipes four inches in diameter ; subject to greater loss of head 
by friction and constant draught from the pipes." 

The following table shows how much the power of head 
is weakened by an extra number of openings — faucets : 

Loss of Head from the Broolcline Reservoir to Beacon Hill and 
East Boston Reservoirs. 

The effect of increased consumption of water in the city 
may be seen by reference to the table in this and previous 
reports of average annual heights of water in the reservoirs. 

A synopsis is given in the following table : 





Average annual heights of Y/ater 
above Marsh Level in 


Loss of Head 
from Brookline 
to Beacon Hill 
Reservoir. 




YEAB. 


Brookline 
Reservoir. 


Beacon Hill 
Reservoir. 


East Boston 
Reservoir. 


Loss of 
from 13 
to East 
Reservoi 


1850 


123.16 
123.36 
123.67 
122.86 
123.65 
123.82 
123.66 
124.11 
124.63 
124.07 
123.29 
123.52 


119.04 
119.39 
116.60 
114.89 
115.69 
117.79 
116.15 
114.77 
116.00 
115.24 
117.13 
116.98 




4.12 
3.97 

7.07 
7.97 
7.96 
6.03 
7.51 
9.34 
8.63 
8.83 
6.16 
6.54 




1851 


105.06 
104.07 
104.91 
99.84 
97.49 
94.11 
94.18 
94.42 
94.05 
96.01 
96.05 


18.30 


1852 


19.60 


1853 


17.95 


1854 


23.81 


1855 


26.38 


1856 


29.55 


1857 


29.93 


1858 


30.21 


1859 


30.02 


1860 


27.28 


1861 


27.47 



53 

5tli Reason -why TVater Metres should be used is, to 
save main Conduit from danger. 

As the conduit is the main artery which supplies the 
entire circulation, it should be the most reliable and best 
protected portion of the whole works. A conduit which 
supplies hundreds of thousands of people and animals, and in- 
numerable manufactories, steamboats, printing engines, &c., 
&c., with one of the daily, hourly, indispensables of life, is 
to be guarded with more watchfulness and precaution than 
any other public work or institution ; it should not be 
hazarded in the least degree, even for a moment. Suppose 
a rupture in one of these conduits to occur, which it 
would require several days to repair, who can imagine the 
consternation, distress, and even death, that might result. 
Yet some conduits, in order to keep up a supply against 
the dangerous waste, have been submitted to a severity of 
use which it was never intended they should be, and 
which the nature of their construction will not safely 
endure. 

When the "Cochituate" conduit was built, it was in- 
tended that it should never be more than two-thirds full of 
water; but reckless waste, that never lets up, demands 
that it shall not only Yxmfull, but even under considerable 
head : the result of which was, as will long be remembered, 
a disastrous bursting in 1859 ; and still it is submitted to 
the same danger, as will be seen by the following, taken 
from the Eeport of 1861 : 

" By a comparison of the following table (the table is omit- 
ted) of heights of water in the conduit with the similar table 
in last year's report, it will be seen that there has been a much 
greater number of days this year during which there has been 
a large head of water on the conduit. 

" The table shows the different heights at which the water 



54 

has been running, and the number of days in each month at 
the different heights. 

" It will be seen by this table, that the conduit has been 
empty only four days during* the year. It has been just full 
eleven days ; less than full, twenty-nine days ; and for three 
hundred and twenty-one days has been running with a head 
on it varying from two inches to two feet eight inches. * 

In alluding to a proposed enlargement of territory to be 
supplied, the Report says : 

'^ It will be false economy and a great municipal error to 
obtain more service from the present Works than they will 
bear. They have been constructed with the view of perform- 
ing a certain amount of supply. If an attempt is made to 
increase this amount, it will certainly be attended by a disar- 
rangement of the system, and to constant difficulties which 
may seriously impair the whole character of the Works." 

The Croton Report for 1880, speaking of shutting off the 
water at Croton Dam, to inspect the Aqueduct, says : 

" The decision not to shut off the water proved most fortu- 
nate. On the night of the 5th December, the two main con- 
duit pipes in Fifth avenue, which bring the water from the 
Receiving Reservoir into the city, were broken near Sixty- 
fourth street, both at about the same moment. 

''By twelve o'clock the accident was reported to the Chief 
Engineer, and at half-past twelve he was on the g-round. At 
this time the Lower or Distributing Reservoir, which is con- 
nected with the Receiving Reservoir by the two mains above 
spoken of, was found to be drained within one foot of the bot- 
tom---almost its entire supply having flowed back through the 
ruptured mains, and flooded the fields in the vicinity of the 
accident. From the Receiving Reservoir, also, there ha.d 
been a very great loss of water. As soon as was practicable, 
at such an hour of the night, a large and efficient force was at 
work, and provision made for relays, to prevent any inter- 
mission of work, night or day, until the mains were renewed. 



55 

The depth at which the pipes lay beneath the surface was 
about twenty feet. By dint of unceasing labor, the covering 
was removed, the broken mains cut out, new pipes inserted, 
and in full operation again within fifty hours from the time 
when the accident was first reported to the Chief Engineer. 
This accident was far more extended and fuller of peril than 
any which has occurred since the introduction of water into 
our city. ♦ * * * * Thus three-fifths of the total 
supply to the city were at once cut oS" by the accident. To 
preserve enough water, therefore, for the absolute necesBities 
of domestic use, it was deemed necessary to take measureo . . 
which we have never before been compelled to resort. As 
soon as the force was collected and set to work, at the place 
of the accident, the Engineer notified, by telegraph, the whole 
police force, with a view to excite increased watchfulness as 
to fires. In the morning, orders were issued to all manufac- 
tories to cease ubxng the water, and the entire supply to ship- 
ping, ferries, &c., was cut off. To enforce the order to the 
manufactories, it was found necessary to ask the aid of the 
Superintendent of the Police. By the afternoon of the 6th, the 
manufactories had been generally stopped, and the beneficial 
effect was felt at once. With the exception of a small portion 
of the city, there was then a sufficient supply for the real 
necessities of domestic life. To supply the portion from which 
the water was cut off entirely, the fire-hydrants in the neigh- 
boring districts were tapped, and arranged to give a mode- 
rate, but sufficient, supply to all comers. Fortunately, no 
large fires occurred in the district unsupplied by water, during 
this intervaL 

" Had the examination and repair of the Aqueduct not been 
postponed, the break would have occurred at a moment when 
the supply from Croton Dam was wholly cut off, and the Aque- 
duct in such a stage of repair, that to have let on the water 
immediately would have been impossible. With the Distribu- 
ting Keservoir empty, and the Receiving Reservoir nearly so, 
the city would soon have been utterly without water. The 
results of such a disaster it is not easy to comprehend." 



56 

The same Report, speaking of a rupture in the Aque- 
duct, which occurred Dec. 21st, 1860, about forty miles 
above the city, says : 

" It was found that there was a crack through the masonry 
of the bottom of the Aqueduct, the fissure extending about 
425 feet in length, and being from one quarter of an inch to an 
inch and a quarter in width. Owing to the great length of 
the required repairs, the difficulty of making cement set pro- 
perly during such cold weather, and the limited force which 
could be procured, there was, at first, danger of another very 
serious interruption to our water supply." 

By general use of metres, the causes of some of these 
accidents would be prevented, as well as the disaster 
when they do happen, by causing the Reservoirs to be 
always full when they occur, and causing an economical 
use of what water might be on hand at the time. 

6tli Reason \Fliy Water Metre§ sliould be used is, to 
render extension of IVater Works unnecessary. 

The ever-increasing tendency to waste the water, to- 
gether with the rapid increase of population in our cities, 
not only has already made it necessary to expend vast 
sums of money for the extension of water works, but, un- 
less the system of rates be so changed as to make every 
taker pecuniarily interested in cutting off the waste, the 
time will soon come when most of our cities will come 
short of supply and call for expensive extensions. How- 
ever great may have been made the original capacity of 
supply, with a view of meeting anticipated demands, yet 
the capacity of supply is fixed, while the increase of de- 
mand is indefinite. It is an error to suppose any supply^ 
short of the Mississippi, cannot, or will not, be exhausted, 
when we know, by actual facts and figures, that a single 



57 

water-closet will consume from 8,000 to 12,000 gallons 
per day. As many water-closets as there are water-takers 
in New York City (say 60,000 at 9,000 gallons each) 
would consume 540,000,000 gallons daily. This is eiglit- 
een times as much water as the whole city consumes 
(30,000,000). The minimum supply of Croton Eiver is 
27,000,000 gallons. Now, suppose the maximum average 
supply of the Croton River, when parts of several counties 
of the State and a portion of Connecticut shall have been 
converted into an accumulating reservoir, to be 50, 000, OOP 
gallons per day : even this amount would supply only 
^,^5^ water-closets at 9,000 gallons per day. Yet there 
are 6,373 hopper water-closets in the city of Boston, and, 
with other water-closets and urinals, altogether 12,843 
It will be said, that there will not he ^,^^5 water-closets 
consuming this amount of water. We do not expect there 
will ; but there is vastly a larger number, each consuming 
less. Besides, water-closets are only one of the minor, 
among thousands of other and greater, sources of waste 
and demands for water. These closets show the temptation 
and POWER to exhaust. Think of the entire Croton River 
being driven through ^^^t>^ water-closets ! Yet it is vossi- 
hie — the streams are small, but their rapidity! 

The Croton Department has just expended one million 
and eighteen thousand dollars for extensions, and must go 
on expending more for an immense impounding reser- 
voir. 

The Boston Report for 1861, speaking of extensions, 
says : 

" As the consumption of water increases very fast, and as 
the lake supply will very soon all be used in the city, I most 
respectfully suggest that no time be lost in having the neces- 



58 

sary surveys made to determine a new source of supply for 
the city, as recommended by the Mayor in his Inaugural Ad- 
dress of the present year." 

The Baltimore Report for 1861 says : 

" But, before closing this report, I take the liberty of ex- 
pressing the individual opinion, that even when finished to 
the fullest extent of the present plans, these works will still 
be incomplete, and to advise the Board of the vital importance, 
if not absolute necessity of immediately extending the Hamp- 
den Reservoir to a full circle (so as to double its present ca- 
pacity), of constructing another low-service reservoir, similar 
to the present one, at some suitable point on the eastern side 
of Jones's Falls, either within or near the city limits, and of 
connecting these two improvements with each other, and with 
the city mains, by an independent line of pipes." 

Other cities are agitating the subject of extension. 

•ytli llea§oiii wliy "Water Metres staofsld toe u§ed i§, to 
enable §iiialler to^via§ and cities to alTord putolic 
water. 

If the use of metres would prevent waste, and cause a 
reduction of two-thirds in the aggregate consumption of 
water — making tliirty gallons go as far as ninety, without 
at all diminishing its practical uses — then they would, of 
course, diminish the original and current cost of supply ; 
for it is evident that water works capable of supplying 
only thirty gallons per day to each inhabitant of a given 
village or city, would cost less than those adequate to fur- 
nish ninety. The streams or sources of supply being less 
(in capacity), they could be found (in man)^ places) nearer 
at hand ; thus lessening the length, as well as diameter, of 
the main conduit ; all the main and distributing pipes 
would be less ; the reservoirs would be less in size, strength 
and number ; the first cost and running expenses of the 



59 



pumping apparatus would be much less. In short, the 
aggregate cost of supply for a given city or village, prob- 
ably would not fall much short of one-half less. Thus, by 
the economy which would be instituted by the use of 
metres, a town or village of ten thousand inhabitants, 
could sujDply itself with public water at a cost which 
is now required to furnish a population of five thousand. 
When it is considered that public water works constitute a 
mighty mutual labor-saving institution, and a universal 
dispensary of life and happiness, and a common protection 
against the dangers of disease, stench, and fire, it seems 
strange that any compact village or city, of three thousand 
or more inhabitants, should not, ere this, have been pro- 
vided with so great a means of civilization, and it can be 
accounted for only on the ground of the anticipated enor- 
mous original cost of such works 

There are many commodities and pleasures which would 
be measurably dispensed with instanter, provided their 
cost should be doubled. So there are many means of en- 
joyment and comfort which would be afforded by thousands 
who now deprive themselves of them, provided their cost 
should be reduced one-half. As this is true with all people, 
and as public water is for all, and is to be paid for by all, 
so, if its cost could be reduced one-half, all would be more 
inclined to vote for its introduction. Who would not give a 
dollar a year for public water ? Yet, at this rate, a village of 
seven thousand inhabitants could furnish itself with water 
works costing one hundred thousand dollars, allowing six 
per cent, interest on the funds, and one per cent, for wear 
and tear. There are thousands of places in the United 
States alone, where one hundred thousand dollars would 
amply provide public water to even a much larger popu- 
lation than this, on a basis of thirty gallons per head, which 



60 

cannot afford the cost of ninety gallons per head. Alluding 
to this branch of the subject, Mr. Rhodes says : 

*' It is not too much to state, that the size and cost of pipes 
for city water works, as well as of the reservoirs, could be re- 
duced one-third, if the quantity to be furnished could be 
calculated without reference to the unknown quantity of 
waste." 



§tli Rea§oii why Water Metres sIioiiM be used is, 
to prevent tlie exposure of lead pipes alternately to 
air and ivater. 

The waste and consumption during the day so far re- 
duces the head of water in the reservoirs, that the lead pipes 
in all the more elevated portions of the city become ex- 
posed to air ; while at night they are filled again with 
water. It is this alternate exposure to air and water that 
renders lead pipe so dangerous for the purposes of con- 
veying water. A full head in the reservoir would remedy 
this evil. How far metres would insure a full reservoir 
may be judged by what is said in other parts of this 
treatise. On this subject, Mr. Rhodes says : 

* I would here advert to a consideration which I deem of 
the utmost importance, although it seems not to have been 
the subject of much public comment. It is the great danger 
to health incurred by exposing lead pipes, in the upper part of 
dwelling houses, alternately to the action of water and air. In 
the night time, when the head increases, the pipes are full, 
and in the day time they are again emptied. This is the 
surest way of promoting the formation of the poisonous car- 
bonate, according to the views of writers on this subject. 

*' I pass this point, after saying that, in my opinion, it is one 
of the most important of all involved in the subject, and de- 
manding the attention of capable minds." 



61 



9tli R-easoii wliy Water Metrc§ sliould toe ii§cd i§, 
to clieapeii tSie price of ^vater for aBl, e§peclaBSy for 
nianufaeturing and other bu§meg§ purpo§e§. 

Some wise man has said, " He who makes two blades 
of grass to grow where only one grew before, is a bene- 
fector of his race." So, too, that which cheapens the price 
of any needful article, must be accounted desirable and 
useful. That metres would cheapen the price of water 
is evident ; for, the waste being prevented, the present 
supply, without increase of expense to the city, would 
at least furnish double the present number of takers, 
hence each taker would receive water at half the charges 
without diminishing the water revenue. The rates, upon 
this principle, being reduced, there would be a correspond- 
ing increased number of takers. There are many persons 
deterred from using public water by the high rates, who 
would be willing and glad to pay half the present 
prices. 

The prosperity of a city greatly depending, as it does, 
upon manufactories and mechanical pursuits generally, of 
course, water, as well as every other possible facility, should 
be afforded at the cheapest rates, and as many branches 
of such business necessarily consume vast quantities of 
water, they cannot afford to pay more than its actual cost ; 
but they can afford to pay cost, for the quantity they actu- 
ally require. But the city cannot furnish such large 
establishments at cost, when they, as well as the takers 
for domestic purposes, waste one half, and more, of all 
the water for which the city receives no pay at all, A 
gallon of water wasted costs the city no less than a gallon 
used. Yet many a private house wastes as much water 
as would supply the actual wants of the largest manufac- 



62 



toiy ; hence a penal price must be charged. On this 
point Mr. Rhodes, alluding to the cost of water, says : 

*' This statement of the cost of water testifies strongly of 
inability, under the present system, to assess the expense 
equitably. It is no more nor less than a confession that one 
consumer must pay for the waste of two or three others ; con- 
sequently, wherever metres are applied under these rates, the 
expense almost prohibits the use of water for manufacturing 
and other purposes. A late report of the Croton Board gives 
the case of two sugar refineries, one of which was taxed $3,433 
per year, and the other $1,202 per year. As the consequence 
of these high rates, every large manufactury is compelled to 
make expensive provision, by means of pumps and cisterns, 
to reduce the consumption of water furnished by the city. 

" It is fair to conclude that the tariff of water rates, estab- 
lished in almost all our cities, is designed rather for the pur- 
pose of restraining the use of water, by inflicting a penal sum, 
than for the purpose of developing the necessary revenue for 
the use of the Department. What policy could be more detri- 
mental to the general interest of the city than one so oppress- 
ive as this to its industrial pursuits ? Because they are con- 
sidered large enough to be worthy of attention and measure- 
ment, they are compelled to pay four times as much in their 
manufactories, where they really need and use the water, as 
they or their neighbors do in their houses, where more than 
half is wasted. Our city has taken a wiser view of this sub- 
ject, and fixed the rates of manufactories at one (1)' cent per 
hundred gallons, deeming it well to foster the manufacturing 
interests, although it may be, with the present limited number 
of takers, at some loss. The good effect of this policy is 
already perceptible ." 

The Cincinnati Reports of 1S61, alluding to the intro- 
duction of metres, says : 

" All consumers would then pay for a close approximation 
to the amount used, and no more. The enormous waste of 



63 



water, attendant upon the present system, would then be either 
stopped or paid for, and the works would be enabled to furnish 
the supply to all, at a proportionately reduced rate 

lOtln IS^eaiOii wlay W^ater Meti*e§ sIiomM be used i§, to 
eeatoSe \^ater boards to regulate tlie price of \i^ater 
to meet ttie co§t. 

The price of water from year to year, as the number of 
takers increases, could and should be diminished ; for 
water can be afforded at cheaper and cheaper rates, until 
the consumption equals the full capacity of the supply. 
But under the present systems of fixing rates, together 
with the uncertainty in regard to the amount of waste, it 
is impossible to thus gradually reduce the price in keeping 
with the above principle. But the measurement system 
would enable the Department to vary the rates from year 
to year, according to the increased number of takers, with 
a degree of nicety that would cause the yearly revenue to 
closely approximate the yearly cost. In the first place, the 
amount of consumption amongst takers would be more 
uniform, and, therefore, would furnish a basis for more defin- 
ite calculation, whilst the metres would furnish the means 
of varying the price per hundred or thousand gallons with 
the greatest facility and accuracy. Even the tenth or hun- 
dredth part of a mill could be assessed, more or less, any 
given year, on any fixed number of gallons, without the 
least expense or difficulty. 

11th Reason \«rby Water Metres should be used is, to 
facilitate the changing of rates to meet the varying 
quantities consumed at different times by the same 
takers. 

It is well known that the amount of water consumed in 
many large establishments from time to time varies ac- 



64 



cording to the amount and kind of business carried on for 
the time being. It is difficult to ascertain these changes, 
and readily vary the rates, so as to insure justice to both 
consumer and supplier. But a metre placed in such an 
establishment would always adapt itself to the exigencies 
of the case, and truthfully tell the tale in justice to both. 

The Chicago Report for 1861, alluding to this subject, 
says: 

" As you are aware, it is a matter of much difficulty to test 
the actual water receipts with the amount of water rates 
assessed. A very considerable portion of the collections is 
from consumers whose rates are changeable — depending upon 
their amount of business and kind of business — and in act- 
ual practice from one cause and another, as many as twen- 
ty changes, some increasing and some lessening the amount 
to be collected on the books, will be made in one day. 
Such changes in the course of the year will probably num- 
ber over a thousand, altering from day to day the amount 
of water rent recorded in the books at the opening of the 
year." 

12tli Rea§on iwlij IVater Metres sliould toe w§e€l is, to 
increase reveiaiae of public water ^vitliout increasing 
tlie rates eliarged. 

After the works are built, it costs no more to deliver 
as much water as the pipes and source are capable of 
furnishing, than it does to supply less. Hence, if con- 
sumers were to pay as much for the amount of water 
they 7'eaUy need as they now do for what they use and 
waste — and there is no reason why they should not — 
the aggregate amount now consumed would furnish double 
the present number of takers. It may be said, however, 
that even if the water were thus economized, there would 
not be, necessarily, an increased number of takers. But 



65 



it necessarily follows that the city could thus furnish 
double the number of consumers without an increase of 
expense ; and it is safe, therefore, to conclude that an in- 
ducement offered by a reduction of rates — which it would 
thus be possible to afford — would produce more than a 
corresponding increase in the number of takers, and a con- 
sequent augmentation of revenue. By referring to the 
table on page 29 it will be seen that, taking ten of the 
principal cities, only about fifty per cent, of all the in- 
habitants are consumers of public water. There is no 
good reason why the entire population should not be 
consumers, and so diminish the rates and increase the revenue, 
— To supply the least number of consumers at the highest 
rates is not in keeping with the popular idea of furnishing 
public water, or the spirit of public enterprise generally, 
which is to furnish the needful supply to the greatest numher 
of consumers at the least possible rates, that will render such 
enterprises self-sustaining. The present methods of charg- 
ing for water are in direct violation of this general prin- 
ciple ; for, so long as there is no check put upon the 
boundless waste, it will be impossible for Water Depart- 
ments to furnish water at the cheapest rates, or even to 
obtain the necessary revenue without ultimately increas- 
ing the rates. 

This is illustrated by results in Louisville, where the 
total <:o5^ of water delivered was nearly 29 cents per 1,000 
gallons, and the revenue received was only 5 cents per 1,000 
gallons, whereupon the Louisville Report for 1861 says : 

" This is an enormous cost per 1,000 gallons of water de- 
livered, an unusually small amount of revenue derived for each 
1,000 gallons distributed, and is not owing to any inherent 
defect in the works, but wholly arises from the too limited 
patronage this public improvement has so far received. 
5 



m 



" The works, with the current expenses the same as at present f 
excepting fuel, can deliver and distribute, with perfect ease. 
4,000,000 gallons of water daily, which, if paid for at the rate of 
9jYo cents per 1,000 gallons (the actual amount received for 
each 1,000 gallons distributed in Cincinnati, Ohio, although 
making the assessments at the rate of 12 cents per 1,000 gal- 
lons) would bring a revenue of $139,868 per annum, an amount 
more than sufficient to pay the interest on the bonds and all 
current expenses ; and, at the same time, furnishing only 55 
gallons of water to each inhabitant per day, while at present, 
estimating fifteen persons as using the water for each permit 
granted, the consumption for the past year has been, on an 
average, "l^jo gallons for each person per day." 

The Brooklyn Eeport for 1861, speaking of the meas- 
urement system, says : 

" Should this system be adopted, although the immediate 
outlay for metres would be a large one, the additional revenue 
received would, we believe, in three years, more than compen- 
sate the treasury, and do much to relieve that section of the 
city lying beyond the pipe district from that large proportion 
of tax which, under the present rates, it is now called upon 
to contribute." 

The New York Eeport for 1855 says : 

" Being of opinion that the application of metres to all 
buildings would repress the waste and increase the income of the 
water, the Board wiU be disposed gradually to introduce the 
system, under a suitable law, by way of experiment, so soon as 
a metre shall be produced which will be sufficient, and come 
at a price low enough to justify the payment for the cost." 

The same Report for 1S53, speaking of metres, says : 

'' Some of those now in operation have cost $450 each, 
ranging down to the smallest at $35, exclusive of the cost of 
fixtures and setting them- The expenditure for metres during 
the year amounts to $3,650, all of which, and more, will he re- 



67 

turned to the treasury within the first year by the increased 
charges against the establishments to which they have been affixed. 
Such being the result, the Department considers it a duty to 
extend their application till all the most important consumers 
are brought under this satisfactory test." 

The Chicago Report for 1861, alluding to metres, says: 

'' Wherever it has been thought best to introduce them, and 
they have been kept in order a sufficiently long time, they have 
more than paid for themselves by the increased rates they 
showed should be charged." 

In Boston, where metres were placed on eight hotels 
(see page 48), it was found that the difference between the 
sum of rates by calculation and by metre was $2,225,22 in 
favor of the metre ; that is eight metres increased the revenue 
$2,225.22 in one year. 

Suppose these metres to cost but $278.15 each (an out- 
rageous price), and they thus pay for themselves every 
year. 

Again : suppose these metres would stand only four 
years, and that then they be thrown away, the revenue would 
be increased $8,900.88 by the use of eight metres for four years, 
or $1,112.61 by the use of 07ie. 

Allowing that each metre ought not to cost more than 
$112.61, and we have in four years one thousand dol- 
lars net increase of revenue by the use of a metre on a single 
hotel. 



68 



FANCIED OBJECTIONS TO THE METRE SYSTEM 
OF CHARGING FOR PUBLIC WATER. 



Ist. j^ome think 'Water should be free as Air, to all. 

Very well, it is free as air to all, if all will go where it 
is, to the rivers and lakes, and help themselves. So are 
the^^A, in the rivers and lakes, free to all, if we go where 
they are and catch them for ourselves. But Jish, when 
they have been caught and brought to market, must be 
paid for. So too with water, when it is brought to us from 
great distance, through artificial canals, conduits, pumps, 
reservoirs, pipes, faucets, etc., innumerable and vastly ex- 
pensive, and then, after we have used it, carried away 
through culvert and sewer to the river again, costs some- 
thing too, and must be paid for, . God, in his goodness, has 
made lakes, rivers, and springs, and trees, and given us 
strength and ingenuity to dig wells and make pumps, but 
nature is not so accommodating as to lay iron pipes above 
and below ground to bring water to our very kitchens, 
bedrooms and bath-tubs. It is not the water itself that 
costs anything, but the conveying of it. If you would have 
a well you must dig it ; a jmmj), you must maJce it ; and 
then the pump must be worJced and the water brought. 

When the magnitude of the original cost and current 
expenses, and the untold conveniences and blessings of hav- 
ing such a supply of water — and the utter impossibility of 
otherwise procuring it — are appreciated, none but the 
thoughtless and ungrateful will say that public water ought 



69 

to be "free as ain" This is a fallacy. They who believe 
it practice no economy ; and though they submit to a nom- 
inal charge for water, they feel that, by so doing, they are 
entitled to consume as much as their pipes will convey, 
heedlessly caring not whether it be iised or wasted. Hence 
these are the very persons who should be taught a better 
way by the application of metres ; they are not otherwise 
to be safely trusted with the use of public water : while 
there are, at least, three good reasons why all honest and 
economical men will desire — at any rate not object — to have 
metres. 

1st. If they are now consuming less water than they are 
paying for, the metre will tell them so, and they will be 
the gainers. 

'2d. If they are using jiist the quantity they are paying 
for, the metre will tell them this, too, and they will neither 
lose nor gain, 

3d. If they are consuming more water than they are pay- 
ing for, the metre will tell them this also ; and, if they be 
truly honest, they will not desire to enjoy for years to come 
an indispensable necessary of life — as they may have been 
doing for years past — at the expense of their neighbors. 



2d. Others, ^rho think it right to be charged for water, 
think they will be obliged to pay more \iith than 
without metres— that they cannot afford to pay for 
water by the gallon, etc. 

By the use of metres it is not proposed to charge takers 
any more per annum for water than they now pay, on 
the contrary, not so much. It will be said, for instance, 



70 



" How can I afford to sprinkle my yard and the street, 
wash my carriage, douse my water-closet, etc., etc., and 
be charged for the water by the gallon ?" Why, that de- 
pends entirely upon what price per gallon you are com- 
pelled to pay. We now pay by the gallon, if we divide the 
water tax by the number of gallons used, but it is a very 
small price per gallon ; so will it be when we are sup- 
plied through the metre. In short, it is only the cost of 
water that citizens ought to be called upon to pay, which, 
of course, is the very least that can be charged. Now, if 
the entire yearly cost is divided by the whole number of 
gallons annually delivered to the city by the works, of 
course, it will bring each gallon to the very lowest price 
possible ; but if sixty gallons out of every hundred are 
wasted, and return no revenue, then the remaining forty 
gallons must pay correspondingly higher rates to support 
the works. Hence, if for each and every gallon a fixed 
minimum price — viz. : its part of the whole cost — be 
charged, and so every gallon, whether it be used or wasted, 
by passing through the metre, be necessarily paid for, and 
so return its own part of the cost to the revenue, why, of 
course, each and every taker would necessarily receive any 
amount of water he might choose to consume at the very 
lowest price per gallon, at which it is possible for the city 
to afford it. This is the gist of the whole subject, viz. : 
to make each and every gallon bring a revenue equal to its own 
actual cost — no more^ no less. Not to make the 25,000 gal- 
lons now used, per annum, by a prudent family bring as 
much revenue as the ten or twenty or even a hundred times 
as many gallons used and wasted by their more extrava- 
gant neighbor. 

This would bring water at such cheap rates that no 



71 



consumer need spare the use of it, in the least, for any- 
needful or luxurious purpose. 

This naturally brings us to consider the cost of water. 



^ctiiaL ca&t af. uiate/^ camficu^ecL uiifk the ju^Lces. 

ckcu^^ed. 

As general averages are more reliable than special, we 
will take the general average of actual cost of water per 
gallon of six of the principal works in the United States, 
viz. : those of New York, Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, 
Cincinnati and Detroit, which is only eight mills per 
100 gallons — or one cent ioxfour barrels. 

The general average price charged is about thirty-two 
MILLS per iOO gallons, being, as will be seen, four times the 
actual cost. 

This great difference in price and cost, under the present 
methods of fixing rates, is unavoidable because the greater 
portion of the water is wasted, for which the city receives 
no revenue at all. 



72 



SIke faLLauLUZi^ taliLe &h.auLS. tke. j^eaJ-Li^ and 
daLLiL^ iiLimLef^ of q^aLLans. tkat diffej^enf s.LLms. 
{f/^aiTL $i ta <$^i) LLLau.Ld Llulj. at cast /z/^lce, anjcL 
at tke acLef^i^e JzHce tzatLL cka/-£.ed : 





Number gallons 


Number gallons 


Number gallons 


Number gallons 




Cost price. 


per day at 


per year at 


per day at 


per year at 






cod. 


cod. 


present price. 


present price. 




$1 


34 


12,500 


9 


3,125 


$4 


2 


68 


25,000 


17 


6,250 


8 


3 


103 


37,500 


25 


9,375 


12 


4 


137 


50,000 


34 


12,500 


16 


5 


171 


62,500 


42 


15,625 ■ 


20 


6 


205 


75,000 


51 


18,750 


24 


7 


239 


87,500 


59 


21,875 


28 


8 


278 


100,000 


68 


25,000 


32 


9 


308 


112,500 


76 


28,125 


36 


10 


842 


125,000 


85 


31,250 


40 


11 


376 


137,500 


93 


34,375 


44 


12 


410 


150,000 


102 


37,500 


48 


13 


445 


162,500 


110 


40,625 


52 


14 


479 


175,000 


119 


43,750 


56 


15 


513 


187,500 


127 


46,875 


60 


16 


547 


200,000 


136 


50,000 


64 


17 


581 


212,500 


144 


53,125 


68 


18 


616 


225,000 


153 


56,250 


72 


19 


650 


237,500 


161 


59,375 


76 


20 


684 


250,000 


170 


62,500 


80 


21 


718 


262,500 


178 


65,625 


84 



The right hand column shows the present prices, that 
correspond with the cost prices in the leffc hand column. 

That the present prices charged are as high, or even 
higher than we have estimated in this table, wall be seen 
by the fact that private houses in Boston are charged per 
one hundred gallons, six cents; in Detroit (for factories, 
breweries, hotels, stables, etc., etc., per metre measure- 
ment), y?i-e cents; in Philadelphia, ^?;e cents ; d^jid, in New 
York, from three to Jive cents ; giving for these four cities an 
average of about ^i;e cents per one hundred gallons, instead 
of about three cents, as we have allowed in the table. 



73 



Any person, therefore, who thmks the measurement 
system will bring water at too high a price per gallon, can 
see, by this table, that he would receive /o^r times as much 
water for the same money as he is entitled to consume 
under the present system and rates. He will see, also, that 
the amount of water (at cost price) standing opposite to 
any number of dollars (m the left-hand column) is more 
than ample for any purpose for which he may be paying 
for water ; whether it be for family use generally, or for 
bathing apparatus, water-closet, garden hose, horses, car- 
riages, fountains, etc., etc. For instance, if $5 is charged 
for bathing apparatus, opposite to $5 in the left-hand 
column will be found 62,500 gallons per annum, or 171 
gallons per day. 

Suppose a taker to pay even less than he now does, say, 
per year. 

For house purposes $8 — 100,000 gallons. 

" horse and carriage . . . $2 — 25,000 " 
" bathing apparatus ... $3 — 37,500 " 
" water-closet $3— 37,500 " 

This gives 200,000 gallons for $16, or eighteen barrels per 

day for FOUR CENTS AND A-HALF, 

If a hand-pump were placed in a kitchen, free of cost, 
this quantity of water could not even be pumped for ten 
times this money, to say nothing about bringing it from a 
pump in the street, besides carrying much of it up two or 
three flights of stairs, and then, after it is used, to the 
gutter. 

Let him, then, who grumbles about the application of 
metres and the charges for water examine these statements, 
and he must be convinced that public water works, for the 



74 

money paid, perform more of his labor, supply more of his 
wants, and do more to promote his health and happiness 
than any work or institution of art. At cost price to con- 
sumers, public water, for cheapness and comfort, stands next 
to rain, air and sunshine. 



Sfke. cast af. /zum/zlnq^ /lutlillc uiafef^. 

Most of the works, in order to secure sufficient " head," 
are compelled to resort to pumping ; and as this part of 
the process of furnishing water is very expensive, an allu- 
sion to it in this connection will not be out of place. 

The machinery and buildings are expensive, while the 
wear and tear on the boilers, engines, and pumps are 
necessarily very great, yet the chief consideration is the 
constant expense of attendance and fuel. Drops of water, it is 
said, will wear a hole through a rock. So, too, with taxes 
and expenses, though they be small, yet, if constant, they 
will amount to the interest of an enormous sum. 

The average cost of pumping is about one mill per 100 gal- 
lons. At this rate, the cost of pumping for a city, consum- 
ing, say, 10,000,000 gallons per day, will be $100 per day, 
or $36,500 per annum. Now, if seven per cent, interest 
will cover cost and wear and tear, for instance, of the main 
conduit, then a conduit, that costs $521,428, just equals 
the expense of pumping for such a city. If three-fifths, or 
sixty per cent., of public water be wasted, as we have 
seen it is, then the expense of merely immping what water 
is wasted by a city, whose daily consumption is 10,000,000 
gallons, is $21,900 per annum, being the seven per cent, 
interest of $312,856.80. 



75 

As a rule, too, those works which pump water have a 
higher head, and the greater the head the greater the 
waste. 

In view of this, and the extra expense of elevating w^ater, 
metres are more needed on those works w^hich do, than 
on those that do not, depend upon pumping. 

3d. iconic say tlie Cost, Repairs, and Inspection of 
Metres will make additional and useless Expense. 

Of course, every new thing makes additional expense, 
but whether it be useless or not, depends upon the amount 
of consequent benefit. Over a million of dollars additional 
expense has already resulted in the extension of the Croton 
Works. This is not useless expense — in the absence of 
metres, it were needed. Still even this very expense 
might have been avoided for years to come had it been 
possible to procure a reliable and sufficiently cheap metre. 

This objection about additional expense is answered all 
along in the foregoing pages ; but for its further refuta- 
tion, we contend that it is no less absurd to object to the 
introduction of water metres, on account of their reason- 
able expense, than it would be — because they cost some- 
thing — to object to the use of gas metres, scales and yard- 
sticks ; in short, all weights and measures, and so adjust 
everything on the less expensive plan of "guesswork" 
and " grab game." 

Storekeepers do not guess at pounds of sugar and gal- 
lons of molasses, on the ground that the cost of scales and 
measures would be " additional expense," but they buy 
these adjusting utensils, and charge their cost into the said 
sugar and molasses — ^this being the only plan which will 



76 

satisfy their customers. People will not offset the risTc of 
receiving less against the chance of receiving more than a 
gallon, save only of water. 

4tli. ISomc say Water Metres would be turned to 
Political Account. 

Though it he true that scheming politicians seek their 
aids from far and near, from regions both high and low ; 
leaving no stone unturned, and turning everything to their 
own account, yet we fail to see how they can bring water 
metres to their aid. It has been said the water metre in- 
spectors would vote for their principals, in order to retain 
their own positions. This, if it be any reason at all, can 
be urged against any public office ; therefore, on the same 
ground, why not abolish all public offices, to prevent them 
from being turned to "political account," or any other 
useful thing or institution which can be at all politically 
handled. 

5tli. Otlsers say tlae Metre Inspectors tvould collude 
witli Consumers, and render false Reports. 

This is no more of an objection to water metres than to 
gas metres, or any other checks, registers, or guages. 
Any and every person who is intrusted with responsibility 
may collude with another — clerks, conductors, cashiers, 
etc. ; all, from a toll-collector to a Congressman. If a 
man in office or trust is found dishonest, he is discharged, 
and another put in his place, but the office remains. If 
there were no reason but this against the use of metres, it 
would be no more sensible to urge it than to advocate the 
discontinuation of the New York Post-office in case one 
set of its clerks should be found dishonest, or likely 
to vote for a certain Governor or President. 



77 



6th. Others think Metres would he tampered with hy 
the Consumers. 

If metres are properly constructed and attached, it will 
be impossible for consumers to disturb their operation. 
Besides, the temptation to interfere with a water metre is 
not near so great as it is to disturb the gas metre, as the 
amount paid for gas is several times greater than that paid 
for water; yet this objection has not prevented the success- 
ful and general introduction of such metres. When eight- 
een barrels of toater cost only four cents, it is preposterous to 
suppose takers would tamper with the metres to save a 
few gallons. This is not a valid objection. There is no 
more probability that consumers would disturb the water 
metres than the water pipes or gas pipes. Again : suitable 
penalties would deter takers from attempting any inter- 
ference. 

Tth. It is thought, hy some, that Water Metres \ironId 
he liahle to "freeze up and hurst." 

Anything containing water w^ll " freeze up and burst," 
if it be placed where it is sufficiently cold. Water pipes 
will burst if they are allowed to freeze up ; so, of course, 
would water metres ; gas metres freeze unless they are 
properly located or filled with non-freezing fluids. People 
do not store vegetables where frost can reach them ; if 
they do, they expect them to be frozen. Neither is it in- 
tended to place water pipes where they will be frozen. 
To do so, would be no less absurd than to drive a nail 
with a watch, and then complain that the watch would 
not keep time. Who says a watch is not a practically 
useful article, because it will not stand nail-driving ? Why 
object to metres because they will freeze up if exposed to 



78 



frost, when it is never intended they shall be thus exposed. 
It is a very simple and inexpensive matter to place metres 
out of the reach of frost. 

In Boston, where the winters are long and severe, the 
number of leaks produced hj frost in service and two-inch 
pipes is very small when compared with those produced 
by other causes. 

The Boston Report for 1861, alluding to 399 leaks in 
service and two-inch pipes, says : 

" One hundred and twenty-two were caused by the settling 
of earth, thirty-eight by stiff connections, nineteen stopped by 
rust, twenty by frost, forty-one by defective pipes, twenty-six 
by defective couplings, sixty-four stopped by fish, fifteen by 
defective cocks, eleven gnawed by rats, twelve struck by 
picks, fourteen by defective joints, nine by digging drains, 
four stopped by gasket, three by cocks blowing out, one by 
tenants." 

Here are several causes of leaks ; but, think of object- 
ing, for instance, to the introduction of water because rats 
are liable to gnaw off the service-pipe ! Yet it is just as 
sensible to object to the introduction of water, because 
rats sometimes gnaw off the service-pipe, as to object to 
metres because they will freeze if subjected to frost. 

§th. §oiiie admit tbe Importance of applying Metres 
to Factories, fi[otel§, etc., bwt tliink they. are not 
needled in private IIou§e§. 

It is admitted that metres are needed on large establish- 
ments, because they consume large quantities of water 
and are liable to allow much of it to be wasted. But, as 
regards the consumption of water and the application of 
metres, what is the difference between a hotel and a block 
often houses that may contain an equal number of servants, 



79 

occupants, baths, wash-basins, etc., and therefore may con- 
sume or waste an equal amount of water. If there be 
any difference, it is in favor of applying the metres to the 
ten houses, because there are ten takers instead of one^ who 
demand satisfaction and justice. Besides, there are ten 
takers instead of one to be looked after by the Department. 
Again : it is possible, if not probable, that among the ten 
houses there will be one water-closet, even, uselessly con- 
suming as much water as would be a reasonable supply 
for all the wants of a hotel. There are ten takers instead 
of one who may practice deception in their consumption of 
water. 

It will be said, notwithstanding this may be so, that 
metres cannot be afforded for every house. But it has been 
admitted, by all the water boards that have used metres at 
all, that wherever they have been applied they have more 
than jpaid for themselves in a short time; some of them even, 
in three months, have returned to the revenue more than 
their cost, this, too, when the metres have cost, some of 
them, as high as $450 each. Whereupon, the boards freely 
and fully admit the feasibility, and the correct policy of 
applying metres, notwithstanding their present high price, 
to all establishments consuming large quantities of water. 

Now, if the cost of metring, say 3,000 to 9,000 gallons 
per day, in a factory or hotel, can be profitably afforded, 
with a metre that costs, say, from $100 to $300, which 
(allowing twenty-two per cent, per annum for interest and 
wear of metre), is from two to six mills per 100 gallons; 
then, most certainly, the same sum ($100 to $300) for ten 
small metres can be profitably afforded for metring the 
same quantity (3,000 to 9,000 gallons) per day for the ten 
houses. This would be allowing from $10 to $30 each for 



80 

the house metres — yet they can be constructed so as to be 
afforded to the Department for a price nearer $10 than $30 
each. 

The rate of cost per gallon for metring being the same, 
of course, it matters not at all whether the quantity 
metred be large or s7naU ; whether it be consumed in a 
hotel, hospital, factory, brewery, livery stable, kitchen, or 
elsewhere. 

Again : if water can thus be profitably inetYedi at the rate 
of from two to six mills per 100 gallons, much more can it be 
afforded if the metring can, by the production of cheaper 
metres, be brought down to a small part of this cost. Be- 
sides, if it be so profitable and desirable to metre a small 
portion of all the water consumed, as in hotels and fac- 
tories, then, much more would it be profitable and desirable 
to metre the entire consumption. 

9tli. It is urged, by §oine, against tlae introduction of 
Metres, tliat tlie water rents cannot be collected in 
advance. 

This objection could be obviated by holding the land- 
lord, or the house itself, responsible for the water rents. 
If this be not possible, under existing statutes, there is no 
reason why the laws should, or could not be changed ; 
for, if public water be essential to the welfare of cities, 
and it be impossible to successfully manage its distribution 
without the adoption of metres or any other needed im- 
provements, and these improvements cannot be made 
available for want of statute privilege, then there is no 
doubt, when this shall be made to appear, but the proper 
authorities would make such changes or modifications of 
the law as to render possible the adoption of an improve- 
ment so essential as the metre. 



81 

In cases where the takers are tenants, and the lien 
system on the property is not in effect, they might be 
required to advance a certain sum sufficient to cover the 
probable water rent ; and by inspection of the metres be- 
fore the expiration of the period which it was supposed 
the advanced money would cover, it would be seen whether 
or not the sum advanced was adequate to protect the De- 
partment against chances of losing in any particular cases, 
and if it were not, to call for a further deposit. 

If gas companies manage to secure the payment of their 
bills under the metre system, wdiat is to prevent the suc- 
cessful operation of the same system in the collection of 
water rents ? Nothing, necessarily. 

10th. It is §aid, a§ an otojection, tliat a Metre for every 
liou§e ^voutd eo§t an enormous §um. 

So do water works themselves cost vast sums — so do 
their extensions. The Croton extension, yet incomplete, 
has cost over a million dollars. But so long as any use- 
ful improvement is worth more than its cost the cost is 
not to be considered. Otherwise, its cost might have been 
"urged against the Croton extension, or even against the 
original introduction of the works, and so let the people 
go dry and unwashed. So, if metres would remove the 
necessity of making extensions, more expensive than them- 
selves, or would be the means of rendering the works in 
every respect worth more to the city by a sum far greater 
than the cost, then the magnitude of the aggregate cost 
should not be an objection, so long as means can be com- 
manded at reasonable rates of interest. 

If a thousand dollars' worth of metres will pay for them- 
selves in a short time, and it therefore be desirable to pur- 
chase them, then would one hundred thousand dioWd^x^^ worth, 
6 



82 

or more, pay for themselves also, and therefore it would be 
desirable to purchase and apply them. 

The following article, from the New York Daihj Times 
of December 8, 1860, being so pertinent to the general 
subject we insert it. It was published at the time so 
many people were deprived of water by the accident to 
the " mains" in Fifth avenue : 

WASTE NOT, WANT NOT. 

" It is a good thing to whistle for water once in a while, like the dry faucets in 
our houses. If au occasional antepast of the legitimate and fast-coming result3 
of our habitual waste of Croton does not teach us a better system of water rates, 
we had better tap Lake Erie at once; for where people are charged, not for 
what water they want, but for what they can waste, no ordinary river will insure 

high tide in our reservoirs It is the unanimous belief of all persons 

who are conversant with the actual working of our system that water must be 
measured out to consumers. 

" The present plan is to charge a certainclassof dwellings with a certain amount 
of water, and a smaller class with a less amount, irrespective of the number of 
consumers, their habits of ablution, the number of hours per day occupied in 
washing the sidewalks, barrels drawn to get a cool tumbler full to drink, the 
number of faucets left open all winter to prevent freezing, in short, irrespective 
of the amount used, just as if a house consumed water in proportion to its cubical 
contents, any more than in proportion to the color of its carpets, or the style of 
its furniture ; just as if an inch pipe would not discharge at least as much wide 
open, behind a brick wall, as it would when partially closed inside a brown stone 
front. Metres experimentally applied have shown, in some cases, ten times as 
much consumption of water in one house, as in another similarly rated. 

"It is totally impracticable to get at the amount of water which passes through 
openings of an unknown size, without measuring it. Yet, this is the basis of our 
present system — an excellent system of guesswork, too— whose best result is, 
that water works intended to be ample for future generations are inadequate to- 
day, while the total supply, divided by the number of consumers, "gives," we 
say, an abundance to each. When we contemplate the facilities for waste, we 
shall only wonder that there is any left to use. The mere neglect to close a fau- 
cet here and there about a house, multiplied by the number of our houses, at 
once converts the entire system into a sieve, which drains our reservoirs faster 
than spring freshets can fill them. And this neglect inflicts no punishment on the 
offender — it gives no warning to careless servants — it does not even betray its 
extent or locality to the disconsolate Department ; but the ten thousand little 
streams noiselessly and industriously run away with our precious Croton to the 
sewers, and the tax-payers build new reservoirs to meet increasing waste. 

" It would be absurb to object, in this connection, that a plenty of water and 
any possible amount of aqueducts to fetch it. is the fundamental condition of the 



83 

public health. If the advantages of the hydropathic treatment are so great as to 
warrant the use of 1,000 gallons a day by a small family, it is certainly worth 
paying for — so think the neighbors who manage to exist on 200. 

" But it is waste, not legitimate consumption, including three baths per day, if 
necessary, that demands the reform. When people have to pay for all the water 
that passes through their premises, the city can afford to supply it, without call- 
ing upon those who are content with enough to pay for new reservoirs and aque- 
ducts. In fact, the city would make a capital speculation by supplying water at 
the ordinary rates for any ultra individuals Avho might want to set up sawmills or 
emperor fountains in their backyards. There is no difficulty in supplying water 
to all who are willing to pay for it. But to levy the charges on the principle that 
all the houses of a certain size receive a certain amount of water, is as absurd as 
it would be for grocers or gas companies to supply wine and light at so much per 
cubic foot of dining-room. 

" The water metre is, in fact, likely to be more important than the gas metre, 
in proportion to the cost of the respective works, for furnishing the supply. 
The city might afford to furnish gas j9er capita, for people could not conveniently 
and safely waste ten times, or even twice, as much as they might need. But to 
push aqueducts to the Housatonic and the Upper Hudson, for the purpose of 
testing how much people can waste, is another matter altogether. 

" If our citizens had to pay for all the water delivered to their houses, while it 
is probable that waste would be instantly cut off, and that the present works 
would be ample for yeai's to come, it is certain that the amount of waste would 
be quite immaterial to tax-payers. 

" In the present dearth, therefore, as we go without our accustomed baths, as 
manufactories stop for want of steam, and as Ave even import water in hogsheads 
from Brooklyn, let us remember that this will be the habitual state of affairs be- 
fore long, if we do not either measure the delivery of the precious Croton, or 
build a new aqueduct or two, if that extravagance should appear better suited to 
the state of the times." 



84 



WHY WATER METRES HAVE NOT BEEN 
GENERALLY ADOPTED. 



If, as we have shown, water metres are generally in- 
dorsed, and called for by Water Boards, and there be so 
many good reasons why they should., and no valid objection 
why they should not be introduced, why, then, have they not 
come to be generally adopted ? Because there has been, 
heretofore, no metre to be found, sufficiently cheap and 
otherwise suitable for general use. 

As, formerly, the various supplies of water were sup- 
posed to be inexhaustible, it is only within a few years 
that water metres were thought to be at all needed. 
Hence, in keeping with a well-known principle — that, 
prior to their demand new discoveries and inventions are 
not developed — ^it is only recently that inventors have 
turned their attention to this subject. 

Notwithstanding, however, the need of water metres is 
so recent, yet, in consequence of this increasing and untold 
waste of water, it has suddenly become a pressing demand, 
and is rapidly becoming an absolute necessity, in view of 
which, inventors have of late brought out many curious 
and ingenious devices ; most of which, however, being 
such total failures, it would seem as if success were impos- 
sible; that inventors, for once, were to be baffled and 
obliged to abandon their undertaking. But this class of 
men, accustomed to disappointments, are not easily dis- 
couraged. They hold that the same ingenuity and skill 
that can divert and bring down to the metropolis whole 



85 

rivers, and drive them a thousand feet high, then make 
them flow under the solid pavements to every house ; sup- 
plying every shop, laundry, kitchen, dining-room, and bed- 
room with a " living stream" of water, can also develop 
the means of an equitable and economical distribution of such 
a blessing. 

This brings us to the consideration of water metres 
themselves— their construction, difficulties in the way, &c. 



DIFFICULTIES IN THE WAY OF CONSTRUCTINa 
A RELIABLE WATER METRE. 



On first inspection it would seem, theoretically, to be 
quite an easy undertaking to construct a suitable water 
metre ; but, practically, there are difficulties in the way, 
which it has been no easy task to overcome. Some of the 
more prominent of these are : 

1st. The scdBinent and otiier impuritie§ in tlie water. 

There are several impurities in river and lake water. By 
chemical analysis of twenty-three specimens of water, 
taken from rivers and lakes of this and foreign countries, 
they were found to contain an average, to the gallon, of 
organic substances, 2.3463 grains ; mineral substances, 9.7587 
grains; undissolved or sedimentary matter, 2.3745 grains, 
and some gaseous matter. 

As relates to metres, the most troublesome of these is 
the sedimentary matter ; consisting of sand, mud, and vege- 
table substances. 



86 

In many metres, containing water-tight packing and 
chambers — such as a piston or plunger working in a 
cylinder — the sand cuts out the packing and allows the 
water to escape, while the mud and vegetable substances 
accumulate within all the chambers, and ultimately choke 
the metre, and wholly interrupt its operation. Several 
patents have been granted for inventions intended exclu- 
sively to relieve metres from this accumulation of sedi- 
ment, but without success ; while no public water is so 
free from sand and grit as not soon to cut away any metal 
or packing coming in such contact as to cause friction. 

It is well known that the combined action of sand, 
water, and friction is employed in the mechanic arts for 
the very purpose of cutting, grinding, and polishing — of 
course, it will have these effects on water metres. It would 
not be expected that the piston and cylinder of a steam- 
engine would durably operate, thus supplied with mud and 
sand. Why should water m.etres ? These impediments, 
caused by sediment, cannot be avoided in that class of 
metres — embracing the majority of all metres — which 
depend, for their operation, upon water-tight fittings and 
compartments. Such metres cannot, either, long endure 
this cutting and grinding process. They will soon fail. 
Anything submitted to the combined action of sand, water, 
and friction must soon wear out. 

2d.Tlie difficulty of rendering^ I9Ietre§ sufficiently 
durable. 

This difficulty is one growing out of the first, viz. : 
the presence of gritty matter in the water. As this point 
was anticipated in what has just been said, it is not neces- 
sary to further allude to it. 



87 

3d. The difficulty of securing sufficient accuracy of 
measurement. 

Metres acted upon by a head of water, varying from 
one foot to two hundred feet, and by streams, varying in 
size from the smallest to the largest that can be drawn 
through faucets and supply pipes ; causing the metre to 
run, at times, with great rapidity, and at others with scarce- 
ly a perceptible motion. When it is considered, then, 
what extreme variations of head and size of stream, water 
metres are subjected to, it is not strange that the greater 
proportion of them should signally fail to adapt their 
movements to these variations, so as to indicate the pre- 
cise quantity of water that passes through them. 

4th. The difficulty of rendering IVater Metres suffi- 
ciently simple and compact. 

As heretofore constructed, metres, generally, are too 
complicated and bulky. Metres depending upon the ac- 
tion of combinations of machinery are too liable to wear 
out, to become disordered and require expensive repairs. 
This is particularly the case with water metres, because 
of the corrosion, sediment, etc., always attending the 
presence of water, together with the fact, that they are 
necessarily subjected to great pressure and rapid and 
forced action, while their great bulk precludes the possi- 
bility of making them of non-corrosive metal, without 
too greatly increasing their cost. 

5th. The difficulty of constructing Metres so as not 
to obstruct the floiv or head of ivater. 

The head of public water is, so to speak, one of its 
most essential elements or conditions. In some instances 
a head of a very few feet, more or less, supplies or de- 



88 

prives half a city. Besides : much water is used under 
full head for jetting purposes. Yet nearly all metres — 
all those depending upon water-tight packing, or that have 
other friction to overcome — necessarily obstruct the flow. 
If there be any friction at all, about the operation of a 
water metre, it will commensurately obstruct the head. 
Therefore, it is a desideratum to have a metre work with 
the least possible friction. 

61Ii. The dIMcuIty of rendering Metres suMeiently 
inexpen§ive for general use. 

The water metres heretofore offered, at a price that 
can be afforded, are worthless, while those that can 
make any claim to durability and accuracy of measure- 
ment are too expensive, especially for private houses, 
and too liable to need costly repairs. 

To avoid all accumulation of sediment , the metre must be 
so constructed as not to produce chambers and eddies, or 
still water, within itself. It must be open and direct, 
that the water may have as free and straight course 
through the metre as possible — carrying along with itself 
every particle of dirt. In fact, no metre, by the very 
nature of things, can keep free of sediment, that would 
not wash itself of all mud and dirt that might be pur- 
posely placed in it — even if it were filled full with a view 
of obstructing its operation. If it cannot wash out mud 
purposely placed in it, it will most certainly accumulate 
mud. 

To prevent all obstruction to ihe flow or head of the 
water, the metre must be as free from friction, and every 
other obstruction, as possible. It must require no per- 



89 

ceptible force to move it. It should yield to the action 
of the water as sensitively and freely as a feather to the 
wind. The inertia and momentum should, also, be as little 
as possible. The metre should start with the first and 
stop with the last motion of the water. 

SimiiUcity is the first merit in any machine ; particularly 
in a water metre. A water metre should, if possible, be 
as free from complication as a simple wheel. It should 
occupy bubt little space, as many times there is but limited 
room to apply it. It should be light, that it may be made 
of composition, to avoid corrosion. It should be so con- 
structed as to be easily attached and detached. 

With reference to simplicity in the construction of 
water meters, it seems as if inventors, generally, had gone 
wide of the mark. 

A water metre should be perfectly accurate under all 
circumstances ; whether the head and volume be great or 
small ; or the volume great, and head small ; or head great, 
and volume small. The same number of gallons should 
always produce the same metrage on the dial 

The very nicest accuracy may not seem absolutely neces- 
sary, however, when we consider that the actual cost of 
water is but eight mills per 100 gallons. A deviation of 
a pint or so, on 100 gallons, would not be deemed of 
much consequence, one way or the other. 

To render a metre durable, there must be no rubbing or 
friction of parts, at least, large surfaces, coming in con- 
tact with the water; otherwise the grit and water will 
Boon grind them out of working order. 



90 



DESCRIPTION OF FRANK G. JOHNSON'S TURBINE 
COMBINATION WATER METRE. 



Patented January 1, 1861. 



Fig. 1 represents a perspective view of the, metre, of 
nearly the actual size for a common house. >S is a cylin- 
der made in two halves, and held together by means of 
bolts and side flanges ; the inside being bored out perfect- 
ly straight and plain. R is the registering chamber, hav- 
ing no connection with the interior of the cylinder, save only 
by a hole an eighth of an inch in diameter, passing through 
its base, N (Fig. 2), to admit the shaft of the wheel o, 
O P are ordinary coupling nuts to connect the metre to 
the conduit or supply pipe. The front of the registering 
chamber consists of very thick plate glass. 

Fig. 2 represents the interior of a metre of actual 
size for a common house, showing one-half of the cylinder 
and the base of the registering chamber. The half of the 
cylinder that is removed is perfectly plain. H (Figs. 2, 
3, and 4) is a simple shaft, provided with a worm-screw 
at the upper end, to connect it with the registering wheel, 
O. This shaft is held in its place by straight, narrow 
strips or braces, I and L (Figs. 2 and 3), passing across 
the centre of the cylinder and being fastened to its sides, 
in such a manner as not to obstruct the flow of water 
through it. This shaft is adjusted and revolves on two 
pins, t and r (Fig. 3). As the metre is always placed in a 
perpendicular position, the weight of the shaft rests on 



Fig. 2. 




91 



the lower pin, r. This pin stands on the base 5, which is 
supported by the brace M, J is an adjustable screw to 
hold the upper pin, t. As will be seen, this shaft is now 
perfectly free to be revolved. 

Fig. 4 represents transverse sections or end views of 
regular lathe-cut screws of deep, nan'ow threads — ^fuU 
size- — the threads being of such a pitch as to make an 
angle of forty-five degrees with the central line. These 
two screws are cut reversely to each other, otherwise they 
are alike. They are hollow at the centre, the solid metal 
being all cut away, except a mere shell to hold the threads 
at their base ; shown by the white circular lines in A and 
1 (Fig. 4). 

These screws are made in long pieces, and afterwards 
cut up into short sections, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. 

These sections oi hollow screws are placed in the metre, 
and on the shaft, in the following manner : As shown in 
Fig. 2, the pieces. A, B, C, D, Ey F, G, are simply laid 
into the cylinder at regular intervals from each other, and 
firmly clamped and held in place by bolting the two halves 
of the cylinder together, which brings the edges or pe- 
riphery of the threads into water-tight connection with the 
inside of the cylinder, otherwise they do not come in con- 
tact with any part of the metre ; the hole through them 
being sufficiently large to surround the shaft without con- 
tact ; as shown in the drawing, A (Fig. 2), the black line 
representing the space between the shaft H and shell or 
hub of the screw. As will be seen, these sections of hol- 
low screw do not at all obstruct the free rotation of the 
shaft. These pieces of hollow screw we term, for conveni- 
ence, sections of spiral water-passages. 



92 

The sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, are firmly fastened, 
water-tight, on the shaft at regular intervals from each 
other, so as to come between the sections of spiral water- 
passages, A, B, C, &c. These sections 1, 2, 3, &c., re- 
volve with, and are a part of, the shaft. As there is space 
enough left between these and the other sections, and be- 
tween the edges or periphery of these sections and the 
inner surface of the cylinder, to avoid contact, the 
shaft; is as free to rotate as before. These sections 1, 2, 
3, &c., we term, for convenience, motors ; and the threads, 
motor-blades. 

Fig. 5 represents the interior of the cylinder S, tlie sec- 
tions of spiral water passages A, B, C, * * *, and the motors 
1, 2, 3, * * *, laid out on a flat surface, which exhibits the 
threads of the screws in the. form of inclined planes, re- 
spectively as they are lettered. The arrows represent 
water. S S represent the sides of the cylinder. 

It will be seen that no water can now pass through the 
metre without passing through the spiral water-passag2S 
^j c, e, g, i, It, 771, formed by the threads of the sections A, 
B, C, etc., or without passing over or between the motor- 
blades, 6, d, f, h, j, I, n. 

These spiral water-passages and motor-blades cross each 
other at right angles. 



OPERATION OF THE METRE. 

T\ie operation oi i\\Q metre is thus described, reference 
being had to figures 2 and 5 : 

As water comes through the supply pipe and into the 
metre it moves in straight lines, parallel to the sides of the 



Fig. 3. 




I'ig. 4, 




94 

pipe and metre, as shown by the arrows T (Fig. 5), until 
it reaches the spiral water-passages A; it then passes 
through these and is forced to come in contact with the 
motor-blades on section 1, at perpendicular, instead of 
oblique, angles to their surfaces, which is the most favor- 
able direction for driving the blades along and so rotating 
the motors and shaft. As soon as the water passes motor 1 
it re-enters another set of spiral water-passages, and thus is 
forced to come in contact with the motor-blades on section 
2, in the same manner that it did on the motor-blades of 
section 1 ; and so on, through all the different sections, un- 
til it leaves the metre. 

Again : suppose the shaft to be held by force and not 
allowed to revolve, then the water, as will be seen, must 
follow the course of the threads of both kinds of sections, 
and thus turn as quick as lightning, almost, at right angles, 
out of its course, every time it passes from one section to 
the other. This, of course, would produce very great re- 
action on the motor-blades ; but, if the shaft be free, as it 
is, to rotate, the motor-blades w^ill be driven before the 
water, and the water will pass around in a spiral direction 
as it goes through the metre, in the same manner that it 
would follow a similar screw if it were co?itintwus, and not 
cut into sections. In figure 5, the water, represented by the 
arrow T, will not pass directly down to u, but it will follow 
the water passages in their courses, as represented by the 
oblique arrows a, o-, c, etc. To be more minute, the water, 
represented by the arrow a, will strike the motor-blades o 
and b ; and b will move on, and most of the water, a, 
will pass on to g, while the least possible quantity of it 
will be turned off in the direction of ^; the same water, a, 
will now pass from g to c, and so on to/, and, finally, 



Fig. 5. 




96 

around and through the metre ; at p a little more will be 
turned off in the direction of d into Ic, and then a little 
more in the direction of z into m. The amount of water 
that will be turned off or out of the natural course of the 
spiral water-passages must be infinitesimally small, because 
the shaft offers comparatively but little resistance. 

With whatever power the water acts upon the 1st motor, 
the same water acts with the same or equal power on the 
2d motor, and the 3i, and so on. But were there an equal 
number of sections of these motor-blades on the shaft, with- 
out the intervening sections of water-passages, the water, 
after passing two or three of them, would get to rotating 
with the motors, and so lose its force to rotate any of the 
others as it passes them. But by intercepting these sec- 
tions of spiral water-passages between the motors, and se- 
curing them to the cylinder, action and reaction are as 
powerful to rotate the shaft on the last and all intervening 
motors as on i\\e first. Each motor is thus made, with the 
same flow of water, to contribute equally to overcome 
one common resistance, without increasing that resistafice 
to any perceptible extent. 

The shaft is made large for the purpose of filling up the 
central part of the cylinder, so as to make the threads or 
water-passages less deep than would otherwise be needed, 
and by which means all the water is made to come in con- 
tact with the motor-blades at a greater distance from the 
centre of motion, which gives the same amount of water 
stronger action, and causes the aggregate of the blade-sur- 
face to pass through more equal distances. 

By the repeated combinations of these reversed screws or 
spiral water-passages and motors, the action and reaction are 



97 

so much imddplied that the motors become exceedingly 
sensitive to the motion of the water — as much so as a feather 
to the wind. Thus the revolution of a simple shaft is ren- 
dered so sensitive to the action or motion of water, that 
the water is accurately measured by flowing through a 
simple pipe or cylinder a few inches long, and about an 
inch and a half in diameter. 



DLRABILITY OF THE METRE. 



All the parts of the metre A^hich are subject to wear are 
shown in Fig. 3. These are the bearings, t, r, and 5; 
which, in the drawing, are some larger than actual size. All 
parts of the entire metre are made of tough " composition 
metal," except these three pieces, t, r, and s ; which are 
hardened steel, chilled iron, or composition, with agate 
points. 

There is no friction by metal rubbing against metal, in 
any part of the metre, except in connection with these 
three bearings ; and of these the principal part of the 
friction and wear is between r and s. The side action and 
wear on the bearings t and r is merely nominal, as they 
sustain no force or resistance. The top of the base s 
is a flat polished surface ; the bottom of r is a smooth 
oval or round. Hence the working contact surface of metal 
to metal is reduced to an absolute point. 

When the metre is running at moderate or slow speed, the 
wear is next to nothing — with such speed it would never 

7 



98 

wear out, if properly made. But the difficulty has been 
to make rotary metres stand the high speed which the 
head or pressure of water gives them. This metre, how- 
ever, involves a principle peculiar to itself, which protects 
itself against racking wear and tear of high speed ; in fact 
the higher the speed the less the wear and tear (save on the 
lower point). This principle is thus explained. The 
water being forced or carried around on the outside of the 
central portions of the metre, if moving at a rapid speed, has 
the effect to crowd the shaft and its motors to the common centre, 
and take the side pj'essure or action entirely off of the side hearings 
t and r. Therefore, so far as any essential wear is concern- 
ed, it is all reduced to one almost mathematical ]3oint — ^the 
contact between r and s. This contact covering but a 
mere point, of course the bearings — ^that is, the bottom of 
r and top of. s — may be made of materials of the hardest 
and finest quality — even diamonds could be afibrded. Still, 
hardened steel, chilled iron, or agate, is good enough. 

The metre standing upright, there is another cause which 
protects the side bearings from wear. It is thus explained. 
If a common top be placed in a horizontal position, and 
firmly held at its two extremities by suitable bearings, and 
then made to revolve at high speed, these bearings will be 
subject to wear from two causes, one of which is the fric- 
tion necessarily produced by the gravitation of the top ; 
the other is that peculiar trembling, shaking or knocking 
action produced by the high speed of small bodies, not more 
perfectly balanced than it is possible to make them ; yet it 
is well known that this top, if it were placed in its proper 
upright position and kept running at the same high speed, 
the side bearings would be entirely relieved, and could be 
taken entirely away, and yet the top itself would continue 



99 

to revolve, wholly unsupported, save by its velocity and 
the single iwint of contact on which it stands. In fact, the 
greater the velocity the more firmly and steadily the top 
keeps its position, independently of side supports. What 
is true in this respect of the top holds good with this metre ; 
that is, when the metre runs at a speed that would materi- 
ally wear the side bearings, it assumes an upright position 
and *' stands alone" independently of side supports ; which, 
as we said before, concentrates the wear and tear to a mere 
point. 

From the above illustration it will be apparent that the 
metre offers no perceptible resistance to the water, and 
that it operates with the most perfect freedom. The 
motors can be revolved two thousand times at a single breath, 
representing the measurement of about fifteen gallons of 
water. 

The freedom with which this metre runs — its simplicity 
and, therefore, little liability to need repairs — its little 
wear, and consequent durability, are all well illustrated by 
the construction and operation of a common toj). 

It does not in the least obstruct the flow, or lessen the head, of 
water* 

The foot r, standing upon a mere point, there is no chance 
Jor sand or grit to get between working contact surfaces ; hence, 
no part of the metre is ground out of order by sand and fric- 
tion. One of these metres (for a common house) has had 
run through it 500,000 gallons, which, at 30,000 gallons 
per year, would supply a dwelling nearly seventeen years ; 
yet the metre, when examined, even by a microscope, 
does not show the least v/ear, save the smallest possible 



100 



indentation on the base, 5. The oval, or bottom of r, re- 
mains round and smooth as when first made. Except on 
this jjoini of contact at tTie bottom of r, there is no more wear on 
this metre than there is in a common jpipe by water running 
through it. 

There is 710 chamber or recess where sediment cnn accumulate. 
In fact, the metre may be filled with mud, sand, and what 
not, and the first flow of water will clean it out entirely. 

The accuracy with w^hich this metre measures water may 
be seen from the following extract, taken from an article 
in the " Brooklyn Daily News," of Aug. 7, 18G2. 

* * * Yesterday afternoon a number of gentlemen, inter- 
ested in mechanical improvements, assembled at No. 121 Wil- 
loughby street, to witness the trial of a new water metre, in- 
vented and patented by Dr. Frank G. Johnson. * * * 



The metre was tested ^?^ every manner, with the most satisfac- 
tory results to the gentlemen present, and was found to work 
with unerring accuracy under all circumstances. The test of 
delivery through the discharge pipe, with different nozzles, 
was made with the following results : 



Size of nozzle. 


No 


of galls. 


No. of turns 
of metre. 


Head of 
water. 


Time 
M.S. 


8-16 inch. 




20 


2,740 


110 fi. 


2 56 


7-16 " 




(( 






3 


6-16 " 




u 






3 4 


5-16 " 




(( 






3 13 


4-16 " 




(( 






3 28 


3-16 " 




u 






3 55 


2-16 " 




(( 






4 40 



RESULT WITHOUT HEAD OF WA.TEE. 



The metre being attached to the receiving-cask, the measure- 
ment was as follows : 



101 



Size of nozzle. 


No. of 


8-16 inch. 


20 


7-16 




(( 


6-16 




u 


5-16 




(( 


4-16 




u 


3-16 




(( 


2-16 




(( 



No= of turns Head of 
of metre. water. 


Time. 
M.S. 


2,740 




4 7 


u 


Nothing save 


4 25 


ii 
u 


pressure of 
the water 


5 30 

6 5 


u 


in the cask. 


9 


It 




12 


u 




18 



COST OF REPAIRS OF THE METRE. 



By referring to Fig. 3, it will be seen that the parts 
which are at all subject to wear, t, r, and s, can be easily 
removed, and new ones put in their places, at a shillingh ex- 
pense, which renders the metre, however much it may be 
worn, as good as an entirely new one. The pins t and ?- 
are simply pulled out of the shaft A, and new ones driven 
in. The base, s, is a small inverted cone of steel (or other 
hard substance), dropped into a corresponding hole in the 
brace, m. This cone can be taken out and a new one put 
in, as also the pins t and r, by means of only a pair of nip- 
pers. The cost of renewing these parts, after the metre is 
detached from the supply pipe, need not be over one shil- 
ling. The metre can be placed on the supply pipe so as 
to have the water run down through, or uj) through it, as 
may be most convenient. 

The registering apparatus can be arranged so as to need 
inspecting only once in a month, quarter, or year, as may 
be desirable. 



102 

The dial, in the drawing, opposite to J, in the centre, 
indicates one gallon at each revolution of the pointer — the 
one opposite to Z", ten gallons — the one opposite to C, 
one hundred gallons, and so on. 

Relative Importance of different nierit§ in Water 
Metre§. 

Of several differently constructed water metres, it will 
be claimed, perhaps, that each has some merit or merits 
which the others do not possess. It will be claimed for 
one, that it is more accurate ; for another, that it is more 
durable; for another, that it is not libble to Jill up with sedi- 
ment, and so on. Of these, and other qualities, there are 
some more indispensable than others. For instance, a 
metre that will soon Jill up with sediment is of no account. 
To be practicable, it must keep itself entirely free of sedi- 
mentary deposits. A metre which costs too much to be 
afforded, though it may possess all other merits, is practic- 
ally useless. A metre which, from complexity or pecu- 
liar construction, is liable to stop by disarrangement, would 
not be reliable, though it might cost but a trifle to put it 
in order again ; or a metre which is rendered very expen- 
sive, by needed reyairs, is also impracticable, whatever be its 
other merits. Again : a metre that materially obstructs the 
flow or head of water, though it possess all other merits of 
a good metre, is practically worthless. Clearage, relia- 
bilitij, non-obstruction to the flow or head of water, reason- 
able cost, durability, and cheapness of repairs are indispens- 
able qualities in a practical water metre. Any metre 
essentially wanting in either of these merits, however desir- 
able it may be in other respects, is impracticable and useless, 
A water metre, combining all these qualities, must be con- 



103 

sidered a practical machine and a desideratum ; provided 
it will measure or indicate the quantity of water passing 
through it, with practical accuracy. 

It is contended by some that a metre should measure 
water with as much accuracy as if it were gold or poison- 
ous drugs. Yet, when it is considered that the actual cost 
of water is only eight mills jper one hundred gallons , it is ab- 
sgtxd to demand such extreme accuracy of measurement — 
especially is it absurd when it is considered that now, with- 
out metres, sixty per cent, of all the water is wasted. 

Calling for such mathematical accuracy, under these 
circumstances, is equivalent to demanding perfection, or ac- 
cepting chaos. 

Metres are often put to the *' drizzle test " and con- 
demned if a few drops or pints of water can be got 
through them without being measured ; yet metres are 
never used in this way ; and if they were, a few pints or 
quarts of water wasted or unmeasured would not practic- 
ally affect the income or consumption of water. 

No machine is mathematically perfect — not one watch 
even, in a thousand, is a perfect " time-lcceper,^'' while, per- 
haps, there are not half a dozen in the thousand that do not 
practically serve the purposes of *' keeping time." 



104 



THIS METRE ADAPTED TO OTHER PURPOSES. 



This metre, reqnii'ing no " head'^ of water to work it, is 
admirably well adapted to the measurement of other 
liquids besides public water, as all kinds of dyes, ale, lager 
beer, alcohol, and other liquors, and all kinds of oil, &c., 
&c. 

It is well known that vast quantities of these articles, 
for the purpose of measuring them, are handled at great 
disadvantage, requiring much time and expense, which can 
be avoided by the use of these metres. They can, for this 
pui'pose, be made very small and cheap. They need not 
be larger than a half-pint bottle. To measure a vat or 
cask of any of these liquids, it is only necessary to screw 
the metre on to the bottom of the vat or cask, or place the 
metre between the ends of two pipes, or connect it by a 
hose ; in short, any way to cause the liquid to pass 
through the metre, and then merely allow the liquid, by 
its own gravity, to flow from one vat or cask to another ; 
which process — having noticed the starting point on the 
dial — can go on as well without attendance as ivith. 

The exceeding cheapness and convenience of this method 
over any other must be evident ; the metre being a sort of 
measuring faucet, which measures the liquid by its merely passing 
through it. 

Besides, there are some articles, as kerosene oil, which 
are very unpleasant to handle ; while others, as alcohol, tur- 
pentine, &c., are wasted by evaporation when exposed in 



105 

open measures. In fact, all liquids are more or less wasted 
by the present method of measuring. 

The accuracy of this metre for this purpose is complete ! 
A given vat or cask of liquid, great or small, may be 
drawn through it, any number of times, and the metre will 
distinctly indicate a deviation as small as a tahlespoonful 
even, and show whether it has been added to or taken from 
the cask. 

This metre, by suitable modifications of the exterior, is 
also well adapted to the use of vessels for measuring the 
depth of water at sea. 

It may also be very conveniently employed to test and 
register the speed of vessels. 



May 12 1883 



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